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ANNALS

OF THE

NEW YORK
ACADEHY OF SCIENCES

VOLUHE XVIII
1908

Editor
EDMUND OTIS HOVEY

LIBRARY

NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

GAKDtiN.

New York
Published by the Academy
1908 - 1909

THE NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

(Lyceum of Natural History, 1817-1876.)

Officers, 1908.

President — Charles F. Cox, Grand Central Station.
Vice-Presidents — A. W. Grabau, Frank M. Chapman,

D. W. Hering, Adolf Meyer.
Recording Secretary — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.
Corresfonding Secretary — Henry E. Crampton, Columbia University.
Treasurer — Emerson McMillin, 40 Wall Street.
Librarian — Ralph W. Tower, American Museum.
Editor — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Chairman — A. W. Grabau, Columbia University.
Secretary — Charles P. Berkey, Columbia University.

SECTION OF BIOLOGY.

Chairman — Frank M. Chapman, American Museum.
Secretary — R. W. Miner, American Museum.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

Chairman — D. W. Hering, New York University.
Secretary — William Campbell, Columbia University.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

Chairman — Adolf Meyer, Ward's Island.
Secretary — R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.

LIBRARY

NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

QAKDEN.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XVIII.

Page

Title-page i

Officers ii

Contents iii

Dates of Publication of Authors' Separates iv

List of Illustrations iv

Errata V

Note regarding the Chester Mastodon v

(Part I) Art. 1. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus Linnaeus.

By Edmund Otis Hovey. (Plates I-IV) ... 1
Linnaeus as a Zoologist. By J. A. Allen ... 9
Linnaeus as an Intermediary between Ancient and
Modern Zoology; His Views on the Class Mam-
malia. By W. K. Gregory 21

Linnaeus and American Botany. By Per Axel

Rydberg 32

Address by the President of the Academy, N. L.

• Britton ... 40

Address by the President of the American Scenic
and Historic Preservation Society, George F.

KuNz 42

Address by the President of the United Swedish

Societies of New York, Emil F. Johnson 46
A Sketch of the Life of Carl von Linne. By Ed-
ward L. Morris 47

Linnaeus and American Natural History. By

Frederic A. Lucas 52

Greetings from Societies and Individuals .... 57
(Part n) Art. 2. New Species and Genera of the Lepidopterous Family

Noctuids for 1907. Part II. By John B. Smith 91
Art. 3. On Determination of Mineral Constitution through

Recasting of Analyses. By Alexis A. Julien . 129
Art. 4. The Chester, New York, Mastodon. By E. O. Hovey.

(Plate V) 147

Art. 5, The Production of Sound in the Drumfishes, the Sea-
Robin and the Toadfish. By R. W. Tower.

(Plates VI-VIII) 149

Art. 6. The North American Species of the Genus Ipomoea.

By Homer Doliver House 181

Art. 7. Records of Meetings, 1906. By W. M. Wheeler . 265
Art. 8. Records of Meetings, 1907. By Edmund Otis Hovey 313

Membership Lists, 31 December, 1907 371

(Part ni) Art. 9. An Investigation of the Figure of the Sun and of Pos-
sible Variations in its Size and Shape. By Charles
Lane Poor 385

iii

Art. 10. Outline of the Geology of Long Island, N. Y. By

W. O. Crosby 425

Art. 11. Charles Darwin and the Mutation Theory. By

Charles F. Cox 431

Art. 12. Records of Meetings, 1908. By Edmund Otis

HovBY 453

The Organization of the Academy 511

The Original Charter 511

Order of Court 513

The Amended Charter 515

Constitution 517

By-Laws 518

Membership Lists, 31 December, 1908 525

Index 537

DATES OF PUBLICATION OF AUTHORS' SEPARATES.

The edition of authors' separates for Part I was 50 copies, 47 of which were
given to the author; beginning with Part II of this volume, the regular edition has
been 75 copies, 50 of which have been given to the author.
(Part 1^, I) Art. 1, pp. 9-19, 29 January, 1908.
pp. 21-31, 29 January, 1908.
pp. 42-45, 29 January, 1908.
(Part II) Art. 2, 22 January, 1908.
Art. 3, 4 April, 1908.

Art. 4, 15 April, 1908.

Art. 5, 23 April, 1908.

Art. 6, 11 May, 1908.

(Part III) Art. 9, 29 August, 1908.
Art. 10, 16 December, 1908.
Art. 11, 10 February, 1909.
Art. 12, pp. 511-536, 16 June, 1909.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

Plates.

I. — The Linnaeus Bridge, Bronx Park, New York City.
II. — Linnseus at the age of thirty, in Lapland dress.
Linnaeus at the age of forty.
III. — Hammarby, the country home of Linnaeus near Upsala, Sweden.

Tablet placed on the Linnaeus Bridge by the New York Academy of Sciences.
IV. — The Linnaeus Bridge and Tablet.
V. — Facsimile of Townsend Mss. describing the Chester Mastodon.
VI. — Swim-bladder of Micropogon undulatus.
Swim-bladder of Cynoscion nebulosum.
VII. — Swim-bladder of Bairdella chrysura.

Swim-bladder of Leiostomus xanthurus.
VIII. — Kymograph Records of Sound-producing Swim-bladders (8 figures).

iv

Text Figures.

PAGE

The Twin-flower, Linncea borealis 32

Swim-bladder of Cynoscion regalis 152

Swim-bladder of Micropogon undulatus after Sorensen 153

Swim-bladder of Prionotus carolinus 155

Swim-bladder of Opsanus tau 156

Swim-bladder of Opsanus tau 167

ERRATA.

Page 40, line 2.— Instead of "Sachalin," read "Saghalin."

Page 68, line 5. — Instead of " jeter", read "lever."

Page 147, line 29.— Instead of "Mitchell," read " Mitchill."

Page 281, line 31. — Instead of " eocy slides," read " eocystites."

Page 316, line 15.— Instead of "Northrup", read "Northup."

Page 324, line 29.— Instead of "cen^", read "cm^."

Pages 329 and 330. — Instead of " Bufo aqua" , read " Bufo agua."

Page 339, line 19.— Instead of "F. W. Pedersen", read "F. M. Pedersen."

Page 341, line 18.— Instead of "Size", read "Pfizer."

NOTE REGARDING THE CHESTER MASTODON.

The attention of the Editor has been called to the account of the finding,
exhumation and character of the remains of the Chester, N. Y., mastodon ^
which was printed in The American Monthly Magazine and Critical Review,
Vol. I, pp. 195, 196, New York, July, 1817. This publication is so rare
that the account is reprinted here.

LYCEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY.

Sitting of June 2.

Dr. Mitchill, the president of the Lyceum, and Dr. Townsend, the committee
appointed, by a resolve of the society, to visit and explore the tract between the
Highlands and the Catskill Mountains, made a report in part; from which report the
following is an extract:

"It was the good fortune of the commissioners to find another skeleton of that
huge creatiue the Elephas Mastodon, which though apparently extinct, was formerly
an inhabitant of New- York. This happened on the 27th and 29th of May, upon the
farm of Mr. Yelverton, near Chester, a village in the town of Goshen. The soil is a
black peat or turf, sufficiently inflammable to be employed for fuel. Its surface is
overgrown with grass, forming a luxuriant meadow for grazing. — The herbage and
the bottom in which it grows, have a near resemblance to the turf meadow of Newton,
in Queen's County, Long Island. The sward and turf covering the skeleton are about

1 Noted with facsimile reproduction of Dr. Townsend's drawing in this Volume, p. 147
PI. V,

four feet deep. Beneath these is a stratum of coarse vegetable stems and films,
resembling chopped straw or drift stuff, along the sea-shore, about a foot and a half
thick; and under this is a stratum of fine bluish and soft clay. Specimens of these
are brought away, and are herewith presented. The bones raised were parts of a
lower jaw with its teeth, of a scapula, of a humerus, of an ulna and radius, of the
bones of the feet, of ribs, and of vertebrae. The upper maxillary bone was found,
with its grinders and tusks, in their natural situation. Dr. Townsend and Dr.
Seely, who had from the beginning aided with their own hands the acquisition of these
curious remains, now laboured with the greatest assiduity in the pit to uncover com-
pletely, and elevate connectedly, these important parts of the animal. The unparal-
leled association of bones, teeth, and ivory prongs, were, after much exertion, de-
nuded of their mud and developed to view. They lay upside down, or, in other
words, their natural position was inverted, as if the creature had died in a supine
posture. The palate bones were perfectly in sight, with the huge molares on each
side. From the point forward where the palate joins the upper maxillary bone in
other animals, two ivory tusks proceeded. These were not inserted in sockets;
at least no such holes or sockets could be found ; but they seemed to be formed by a
gradual change of bone to ivory, or of osseous to eburneous matter. In this lespect
the conversion resembled the jaw and tooth of the Saurian reptile of Nevesink, al-
ready in the cabinet of the Professor of Natural History ; in w^hich organization the
jaw is converted gradually to tooth. Their direction was forward, with a bold curva-
ture outward and upward. Between the tusks could be seen and felt the nasal proc-
esses to which the proboscis had formerly been attached. They were short and
ungular. On attempting to loosen the left tusk from its clayey bed, it broke across,
though touched in the most delicate manner. Though approached with the gentlest
touch, it flaked off in considerable portions, and cracked through in several other
places. Finding it wholly impossible to preserve its entirety, recourse was had to
measuring the relics as they lay, and of making drawings from them as accurately as
possible. And as the fragments of the tusk were handed up. Dr. Mitchill measured
them by a rule, and found their amount, reckoning within bounds, to be eight feet
and nine inches; or taking into calculation the space of connexion with the jaw as
being three inches, or perhaps more, the length of the tusk was nine feet, or upwards,
of solid ivory*

The circumference at the base was two feet and two inches, making a diameter
of eight inches and two- thirds! The taper was easy, gradual, and smooth, like the
tusks of other elephants. Dr. Townsend made a sketch of the parts in situ, before
they were removed; by which it will be seen how the grinders are situated in relation
to the tusks, and how tusks are to be considered as holding a middle place, in their
anatomical structure and use, between teeth and horns. The various parts of the
animal which were disinterred, and the drawings and illustrations, are herewith
submitted to the society.

" Although the fragile and friable nature of these bones might render it impossible
ever to connect them into a complete skeleton, the commissioners state it as a matter
of the highest probability, that at the aforesaid place, the remainder of a mammoth,
as huge perhaps as ever walked the earth, reposes in the swamp, not more than
fifty-four miles from the site of this institution. — He has already heard the resusci-
tating voice of the Lyceum."

* The tusks, though solid, are changed in their nature. Professor MacNeven, honorary
member of the Lyceum, mentioned, in the society, that he had found their substance to be
converted into carbonate of hme.

vl

VOL. XVIII

PART I

ANNALS

OF THE

NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

EDITOR
Edmund Otis Hovey

NEW YORK

PUBUSHED BY THE ACADEMY

1908

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

Officebs, 1908.

President — Charles F. Cox, Grand Central Station.
Recording Secretary — E. O. Hovey, American Museum.
Corresponding Secretary — H. E. Crampton, Barnard College.
Treasurer — Emerson McMillin, 40 Wall St.
Librarian — Ralph W. Tower, American Museum.
Editor — Edmund Otis Hovey, American Museum.

SECTION OF GEOLOGY AND MINERALOGY.

Chairman — A. W. Grabau, Columbia University.
Secretary — C. P. Berkey, Columbia University.

SECTION OP BIOLOGY.

Chairman — Frank M. Chapman, American Museum.
Secretary — Roy W. Miner, American Museum.

SECTION OF ASTRONOMY, PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY.

Chairman — D. W. Hering, New York University.
Secretary — William Campbell, Columbia University.

SECTION OF ANTHROPOLOGY AND PSYCHOLOGY.

Chairman — Adolf Meyer, Ward's Island.
Secretary — R. S. Woodworth, Columbia University.

Sessions of 1908.

The Academy will meet on Monday evenings at 8:15 o'clock from Octo-
ber to May, inclusive, in the American Museum of Natural History, 77th
Street and Central Park, West.

limals N. Y. Acsd. Sci., Vol. XVni, Part I, January, 1908.

Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XVIII, No. 1, Part I, pp. 1-90. January, 1908.]

THE BICENTENARY OF THE BIRTH OF

CAROLUS LINNiEUS. LIBRARY

NEW YORK

BOTANICAL

QARUEN.

By Edmund Otis Hovey,
Recording Secretary.

On May 23, 1907, the New York Academy of Sciences, in common with
many other scientific societies and institutions throughout the world cele-
brated the two hundredth anniversary of the great Swedish naturalist
Carl von Linne, who is better knov^Ti perhaps by his Latin name Linnaeus.
In preparation for the event, the following invitation was sent out to
sister societies throughout the world and to the Honorary Members of
the Academv.

The New York Academy of Sciences

will celebrate on May 23, 1907, the

Two Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Carl von Linne.

At this time, commemorative exercises will be held at
The American Museimi of Natural History, The New York Zoological Park,

The New York Botanical Garden, The New York Aquarium,

The Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.

A beautiful bridge crossing the Bronx River between the Botanical Garden and
the Zoological Park will be dedicated to the distinguished Swedish naturalist.

(The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences)

is invited to take part in this celebration by contributing an official document,
appreciative of the works of Linne, to be read before the members of the New
York Academy of Sciences and assembled guests.

N. L. Britton, E. O. Hovey,

President . Secretary.

The invitation was accompanied by an illustration of the Linnaeus Bridge ,
to which reference was made.

To all sister societies in the United States, Canada and Mexico, the fol-
SBwing additional invitation was sent.

LU

2 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(The National Academy of Sciences)

is cordially iii\ated by the

New York Academy of Sciences

to participate in its exercises

commemorative of the two hmidredth anniversary

of the birth of the Swedish naturalist

Carl von Linne

through an authorized representative

as well as by the official document asked for

in the accompanying invitation

An early reply is desired

On the day of the anniversary the committee charged by the Council
with making arrangements for the celebration carried out the following
program.

PROGRAM OF EXERCISES

MORNING

9: 00-12: 00. — At the American Museum of Natural History
Exhibition of American Animals known to Linnaeus

In charge of F. M. Chapman, W. M. Wheeler, W. Beutenmueller
Exhibition of Shells, Minerals and Rocks known to Linnaeus

In charge of L. P. Gratacap, E. O. Hovey
10: 30. — Reading of letters from other Societies by the Secretary of the Academy
11 : 15. — Address by J. A. Allen on "Linnteus and American Zoology"

AFTERNOON

2:00-4:00. — At the New York Botanical Garden, Musemn Building, Bronx Park
Exhibition of American Plants known to Linnajus

In charge of L. M. Underwood, J. K. Small, P. A. Rydberg, M. A. Howe,
G. V. Nash
Exhibition of the Botanical Writings of Linnaeus and of Portraits of Linnaeus

In charge of C. B. Robinson, J. H. Barnhart
3: 10. — Address by P. A. Rydberg on "Linnaeus and American Botany"
3 : 40. — Exhibition of selected lantern slides of Flowers of North American
Plants known to Linnaeus. In charge of H. H. Rusby

4: 00-4: 30. — Walk South from Museum Building through the Grounds of the Garden
to the Linnaeus Bridge
W. A. Murrill will point out characteristic American trees known to Linnaeus

4 : 30. — At the Bridge over the Bronx River on Pelham Parkway
Unveiling of a Bronze Tablet Commemorating Linn^us
Address by the President of the Academy, and placing of documents in the tablet
Singing by the American Union of Swedish Singers: "Hear us, Svea"
— Wennerberg

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 3

Acceptance of the tablet on behalf of the City of New York by the Hon. Joseph
I. Berry, Commissioner of Parks of the Borough of the Bronx

Acceptance of the key of the tablet by the New York Historical Society for safe
keeping until May 23, 1957

Singing by the American Union of Swedish Singers: "Battle Hymn" —
Lindblad

Address by G. F. Ktjnz, President of the American Scenic and Historic Preserva-
tion Society

Address by E. F. Johnson, President of the United Swedish Societies of New
York

Singing by the American Union of Swedish Singers: "Banner Song" —
Wennerberg

5:15-6:30.— At the New York Zoological Park

Examination of the Collections with special reference to Animals known to
Linnaeus
In charge of W. T. Hornaday, C. W. Beebe, R. L. Ditmars, W. Reid
Blair

EVENING

8:00. — At the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute, Eastern Parkway
Opening address by F. A. Lucas
Address by E. L. Morris on the "Life of Linnaeus"
Musical number by the Glee Club of the United Swedish Societies
Address by F. A. Lucas on " Linngeus and American Natural History"
Musical numbers by the Glee Club of the United Swedish Societies
Exhibition by means of lantern slides of "Plants and Animals known to Lin-
naeus." In charge of Dr. A. J. Grout, F. A. Lucas

8:30-10:30.— At the New York Aquarium, Battery Park

(Admittance by in\'itation only)
Reception given by the New York Zoological Society to the New York Academy

of Sciences and Guests
Demonstrations of features of Marine Life known to Linnaeus

Commemoration of the centennial of the Aquarium building
First view of the collections of the Aquarium by night. Music

Nathaniel L. Britton Frederic A. Lucas
Hermon C. Bumpus Charles H. Townsend

William T. Hornaday William Morton Wheeler

Comrnittee
Edmund Otis Hovey, Secretary

American Museum Natural History

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The carrying out of the plans of the Committee was made possible
through a special fund of about $1000, the subscribers to which were

Adams, Edward D.

Adler, I.

Amend, B. G.

Armstrong, S. T.

Atkins, George F.

Avery, Samuel P.

Barron, George D.

Baskerville, Charles

Beck, F. C. T.

Beckhard, Martin

Berthoud, Edward S.

Beuren, F. T. van

Bird, Henry

Bristol, John I. D.

Brown, Edwin H.

Bumpus, H. C.

Bunting, Martha

Burgess, E. S.

Call, A. Ellsworth

Cassabeer, H. A., Jr.

Chamberlain, Leander T.

Chandler, C. F.

Chubb, S. H.

Chne, Miss May

Cohn, J. M.

Coming, C. R.

Cox, C. F.

Davenport, Mrs. Elizabeth B.

Davidson, Miss Mary E. S.

Davies, J. Clarence

Dean, Bashford

Demorest, W. C.

Dodge, C. H.

Donald, James M.

Douglas, James

Draper, Mrs. Henry

Dunham, E. K.

D wight, Jonathan, Jr.

Dwight, Melatiah E.

Foot, Miss Katharine

Ford, James B.

FrisseU, A. S.

Gooch, F. C.

Greenwood, Isaac J.

Haupt, Louis

Herrman, Mrs. Esther

Hess, Selmar

Holden, E. R.

Hooker, Miss Henrietta E.

Homaday, WiUiam T.

Huntington, Archer M.

Hussakof, L.

Jesup, Morris K.

Kaufman, Miss Pauline

Kemp, James F.

Kimtz, C.

Kunz, George F.

Lagerberg, J. de

Langeloth, I.

Langmann, G.

Levy, Miss Daisy

Low, Seth

Lucas, F. A.

Matthew, G. F.

McKim, H.

McIVnihn, Emerson

McNeil, C. R.

New York Academy of Sciences

Nichols, John Treadwell

Oettinger, P. J.

Osbom, H. F.

Osbom, W. C.

Osbum, Raymond C.

Owens, Wilham W.

Parsons, Mrs. Edwin

Parsons, John E.

Pederson, Frederick M.

Perkins, W. H.

Perry, C. J.

Phipps, Henry

Pinchot, Gifford

Post, Abram S.

Ramsperger, G.

Riker, Samuel

Robb, J. Hampton

Robinson, Miss Winifred J.

Rydberg, P. A.

Seabury, George J.

Seitz, Charles E.

Sellew, T. G.

Shannon, William Purdy

Smith, Eugene

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 5

Stetson, Francis Lynde White, I. C.

Stolpe, Mauritz Wicke, William

Thorbum & Co., J. M. Williams, R. S.

Townsend, C. H. Wilson, Edward B.

Tuckerman, Alfred Wood, Miss Cynthia A.

Watson, J. H. Woodward, Robert S.
Yatsu, Naohid(5

The Academy also acknowledges the co-operation of the American
Museum of Natural History, the New York Botanical Garden, the New
York Zoological Society, the IMuseum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and
Sciences, the American Union of Swedish Singers and the Glee Club of the
United Swedish Societies, in making the celebration dignified and successful.

After the inspection of the special exhibits in the American Museum, the
literary exercises began with the reception by President Britton of the official
delegates of societies as follows, each presenting the greeting of his society.

Royal Swedish Horticultural Society J. de Lagerberg

Society of Friends of Natural Sciences, Ekaterinburg,

Russia George F. Kunz

r J. J. Stevenson
Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate," Mexico -j C. T. Stevens

Ij. F. Kemp

Boston Society of Natural History J. A. Allen

Museum of Comparative Zoology William Brewster

Natural History Society of West Newbury, Mass William Merrill

American Journal of Science Herbert E. Gregory-
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences Alexander W. Evan*

Linnsean Society of New York Jonathan D wight, Jr.

New York Botanical Garden Addison Brown

New York Zoological Society H. F. Osbom

Anaerican Museum of Natural History G. H. Sherwood

Torrey Botanical Club H. H. Rusby

New York Entomological Society E. B. Southwick

New York Microscopical Society J. L. Zabriskie

New York Historical Society Samuel V. Hoffman

American In'stitute of the City of New York Robert Rutter

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences T. G. Smith

Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences | A. J. Grout

l^ F. A. Lucas

Staten Island Association of Arts and Sciences Arthur Hollick

Maryland Academy of Sciences C. C. Plitt

American Philosophical Society J. W. Harshberger

American Entomological Society J. W. Harshberger

National Academy of Sciences H. F. Osbom

Biological Society of Washington Edward L. Morris

6 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ohio Academy of Sciences Raymond C. Osborn

Indiana Academy of Sciences Guy West Wilson

r E. J. H. Amy
E. M. Rogers
Colorado Scientific Society •{ B. B. Lawrence

E. E. Olcott
W. S. Morse

Telegraphic greetings were read from

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm

The Royal University, Upsala

The Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh

The Royal Dublin Society, Dublin

The Gothenburg Society of Science, Gothenburg

The Imperial Academy of Sciences, St. Petersburg

The Uralian Natural History Society, Ekaterinburg

The Royal Linna;an Academy, Rome

The Botanical Garden, Rio de Janeiro

After the reading of these greetings, the Secretary submitted the fol-
lowing complete list of the societies, other organizations and individuals
sending greetings.

Foreign Societies

The Linnaean Society, London

The British Association for the Advancement of Science, London
The Society of Arts, London

The Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, Falmouth
The Cambridge Philosophical Society, Cambridge

The North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers, Newcastle-
upon-Tyne

The Royal Scottish Geographical Society, Edinburgh

The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh

The Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow. Glasgow

The Royal Dublin Society, Dublin

Den Norske Gradmaalingskommission, Kristiania

The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm

The Royal Swedish Horticultural Society, Stockholm (Delegate)

The Gothenburg Society of Sciences, Gothenburg

The Royal University of Upsala, Upsala

The University of Lund, Lund

The Geological Commission of Finland, Helsingfors

The Imperial Academy of Science, St. Petersburg

The Uralian Natural History Society, Ekaterinburg (Delegate)

Koninklijke Akademie van Wetenschappen te Amsterdam, Amsterdam

Senaat der Rijks Universiteit te Leiden, Leiden

K5niglich Preu.ssische Alcademie der Wissenschaften, Berlin

Berliner Entomologische Verein, Berlin

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 7

Kommission zur wissenschafflichen Untersuchung der deutschen Meere, Kiel

Kaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Carolinische deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher,
Halle, A.S.

Verein fiir vaterlandische Natuikunde in Wurttemberg, Stuttgart

Thurgauische Naturforschende Gesellschaft, Frauenfeld

Kaiserliche Akademie der Wissenschaften, Wien

Regia Societas Scientiarum Bohemica, Prague

The Royal Hungarian Society of Natural Sciences, Budapest

The Transylvanian Museum Society, Kolszvar

La Societe de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve. Suisse

L 'Akademie de Medecine, Paris

Societe Linne^nne de Normandie, Caen

Societe des Amis des Sciences de Rouen, Rouen

Society Geologique du Nord.' Lille

University de Lyon, Lyons

La Soci^t^ des Sciences de Nancy, Nancy

Societe d'Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse, Toulouse

Real Academia de Ciencias Exactas, Fisicas y Naturales, Madrid

Specula Vaticana, Rome

The Royal Linnsean Academy, Rome

The Australian Museum, Sydney

Koninklijke Natuur Kundige Vereeniging in " Nederiandsch-Indie," Weltevreden
(Batavia)

Royal Society of Canada, Ottawa

Ottawa Field Naturalists' Club, Ottawa

Entomological Society of Ontario, Toronto

Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate," Mexico

The Botanical Garden, Rio de Janeiro

Museu Nacional do Rio de Janeiro

Honorary Members

Sir Archibald Geikie, London Professor Charles Barrois, Lille

Sir James Dewar, London Prof. Dr. F. Leydig, Rothenburg

Dr. Hans Reusch, Kristiania Professor Edward S. Dana, New Haven

Professor Hugo de Vries, Amsterdam Dr. H. R. Storer, Newport

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecht, Utrecht Professor A. E. Brown

Prof. Dr. Karl von den Steinen, Berlin Professor George Macloskie, Princeton

Prof. Dr. Wilhelm Pfeffer, Leipzig Professor Edward L. Berthoud, Boulder,

Prof. Dr. H. Rosenbusch, Heidelberg Colorado

Domestic Societies

Portland Society of Natural History, Portland, Me.
Natural History Club of West Newburj% West Newbury, Mass.
Boston Society of Natural History, Boston, Mass. (Delegate)
Boston Scientific Society, Boston, Mass. (Delegate)
Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston, Mass.

8 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. (Delegate)
Newport Natural History Society, Newport, R.I.
American Journal of Science, New JHaven, Conn. (Delegate)
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Haven, Conn. (Delegate)
New York State Musemn, Albany, N.Y.
Linnsean Society of New York, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York Botanical Garden, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
Torrey Botanical Club, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York Entomological Society, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York Microscopical Society, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York Historical Society, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York Zoological Society, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
American Museum of Natural History, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York Academy of Sciences, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
American Scenic and Historic Preservation Society, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
American Institute of the City of New York, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
Medico Legal Society of New York, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
United Swedish Societies of New York, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, New York, N.Y. (Delegate)
Staten Island Association of Arts and Sciences, New Brighton, N.Y. (Delegate)
New York State Education Department, Science Division, Albany, N.Y. (Dele-
gate)

Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, N.Y. (Delegate)

Stevens Institute of Technologj"-, Hoboken, N.J.

Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa. (Delegate)

American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pa. (Delegate)

American Entomological Society, Philadelphia, Pa. (Delegate)

Zoological Society of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, Pa. (Delegate)

Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa. (Delegate)

Natural History Society of Delaware, Wilmington, Del.

Maryland Scientific Society, Baltimore, Md. (Delegate)

National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. (Delegate)

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. (Delegate)

Biological Society of Washington, Washington, D.C. (Delegate)

Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. (Delegate)

Philosophical Society of Washington, Washington, D.C. (Delegate)

Ohio Academy of Science, Gambler, O. (Delegate)

Indiana Academy of Sciences, Bloomington, Ind. (Delegate)

Wisconsin Academy of Sciences, Arts and Letters, Madison, Wis.

St. Paul Academy of Science, St. Paul, Minn.

Academy of Science of St. Louis, St. Louis, Mo.

Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Mo.

Colorado Scientific Society, Denver, Col. (Delegate)

The audience then listened to the following address.

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BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 9

LINN^US AS A ZOOLOGIST.
By J. A. Allen, Ph. D.

Carolus Linnseus, later known as Carl von Linne, was born at RS.-
shult, in the province of SmS,land, Sweden, May 13, O.S., 1707, and died
at Hammerby, near Upsala, on Jan. 10, 1778. His grandfather was a
farmer; his father, a clergyman. Young Linnseus, the future naturalist,
was intended by his parents for the ministry, and his early education
was conducted with this end in view. At the age of ten he was sent to the
Latin School at Wexio, but after seven years at this school he was found to
be so deficient in his scholastic studies that his parents thought of apprenti-
cing him to a shoemaker.

While at Wexio, much of his time was devoted to the study of plants and
insects, an inclination apparently favored by his master, who was himself
greatly interested in botany. Fortunately young Linnseus was rescued
from his threatened degradation by Dr. John Rothman, a physician of
Wexio, who recognized his superior abilities, and appreciated his interest in
natural history. He took him into his own home, where for a year Linnseus
continued his botanical studies, aided by the advice and hbrary of his patron.
At the age of twenty he entered the University of Lund, where he soon found
himself \\^thout means of support, through the death of his patron and friend,
the kind-hearted physician of Wexio. Fortunately he soon won the friend-
ship of Dr. Kilian Stobseus, the professor of botany and medicine, who
made him a member of his family. Here he had access to books and to a
small museum of natural history, and found much leisure for exploring the
neighboring country and for collecting objects of natural history. At the
end of a year he went to Upsala, where, under Rudbeck and Roberg, he
advanced rapidly in medicine and botany. Here he won the friendship of
the renowned Olaf Celsius, whom he later characterized as the best botanist
in Sweden, and of Artedi, a fellow-student, who afterwards became the
founder of ichthyology. During his whole course at Upsala, it is said that
he did not hear a single public lecture on either anatomy, botany or chem-
istry, but he and Artedi, in good-tempered rivalry, were devoting their ener-
gies to natural history, — Linnseus to plants, birds and insects, and Artedi to
amphibia and fishes. Linnaeus here also began the preparation of his
epoch-making works on botany and of the first edition of his "Systema
Naturae," published a few years later in Holland.

In 1732, at the age of twenty-five years, he was commissioned by the
Upsala Academy of Sciences to make a tour of exploration in Lapland in the

10 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

interest of natural history. He left Upsala on the 12th of May, and after
an absence of five months returned to Upsala on the 10th of October.
This remarkable journey of 4600 miles was made partly on horseback,
partly by boat, and partly on foot; it extended northwestward across the
Norwegian Alps to the coast of Norway beyond the Arctic Circle; the
return journey was made by way of eastern Finland It was an undertaking
of great hardship and much danger, being performed alone, aided only by
local guides employed to conduct the way from one point to another. On
his return a report of his journey was presented to the Academy, but it
remained in manuscript until translated and published in English by Dr.
James Edward Smith, the first president of the Linnsean Society of London,
in 1811.^ The botanical results, however, were published separately by
Linnaeus himself, in 1737.

The following year was spent at Upsala, where he attempted to eke out
his scanty means of support by giving lectures on botany, mineralogy and
chemistry. This proved contrary to one of the statutes of the university,
to the effect that no one should give public lectures who had not obtained
his doctor's degree, which statute was invoked against him by Rosen, the
successor to Rudbeck in the pi'ofessorship of medicine and anatomy, who
was jealous of Linnseus's abilities and attainments. Deprived of this
financial resource, he took some of his pupils on excursions into the neighbor-
ing mountains, where he met the governor of the province of Dalecarlia,
who sent him to explore and report on certain copper mines in which he was
interested. While on this journey he gave lectures at Falun on mineralogy
and assaying. Here he made the acquaintance of Dr. INIorseus (a learned
and wealthy physician of the district) and his two daughters, to one of whom
he became betrothed ; the father, however, insisted on deferring the marriage
till Linnaeus had completed his professional studies and obtained his medical
degree. For this purpose, in the spring of 1735, he journeyed to Lubeck
and Hamburg, and later to Holland, where, in June, he received from
the University of Harderwijk the degree of doctor of medicine. At
Leyden he became acquainted with the leading men of science of that city,
which soon led to his engagement by Dr. George Cliifort, a wealthy burgo-
master of x\msterdam, to take charge, at a liberal salary, of his extensive

1 The herbaria, library (about 2500 volumes), manuscripts and ccnespondence of Linnasus,
were offered by his widow and daughters, "by the advice of friends," to Sir Josepli Banl<s,
"for the sum of a thousand guineas." Sir Joseph, not feeling inclined to the purchase, recom-
mended it to the consideration of his friend, Dr. (later Sir) J. E. Smith, by whom these treas-
ures were secured, and transferred to England (Turton, Life and Writings of LinncBUS, 1806,
p. [39]), and later passed into the possession of the Linnsean Society of London, founded in
1788 through the efforts of Dr. Smith, who was its first president. (See Jardine's Natural-
ist's Library, Vol. I, 1833, p. 58.)

BICENTENARY OF LINNMVS 11

museum and botanic garden. Later he was sent by him to England to
secure rare plants for his garden, w ith a letter of introduction from the great
Boerhaave to Sir Hans Sloane. He thus came in contact with the botanists
of London, where, however, his reception was not always cordial.

On his return to Holland he was offered the position of government
physician to the Dutch colony in Surinam, which he prudently declined,
and became an assistant to his friend Van Royen at the botanic garden in
Leyden. After a brief visit to Paris he returned to Stockholm in September,
1738, where he determined to settle as a physician. Notwithstanding his
fame abroad and his skill as a botanist, the pecuniary returns from his
profession were at first small, but they gradually increased; and, obtaining
some government patronage, his marriage to Miss Morseus was celebrated
on June 26, 1739.

He remained only three years in Stockholm, during which period he
helped to found the Royal Academy of Sciences of that city, and served as
its first president. In 1741, under an order from the government, he made
a journey through Oland and Gothland. In the same year he was called
to the chair of botany at the University of Upsala, a position to which he
had long aspired, and which he filled for thirty years, when impaired health
compelled him to resign his official duties and to discontinue his literary
labors. The University of Upsala, through the fame of Linnseus, became
widely renowned as a seat of learning, and attracted students from various
parts of Europe. During these years of almost uninterrupted activity, most
of Linnseus's numerous botanical and other works were published, the
material for which reached him in ever-increasing abundance, not only from
distant parts of Europe, but from Siberia, China, India, Egj'pt, South Africa
and North and South America.

Academic honors were showered upon him by all the learned societies of
Europe; a gold medal w^as struck in his honor by the nobles of Sweden;
and in 1757 he was created by King Frederic a Knight of the Polar Star, and
admitted to hereditary nobility. Foreign courts made overtures for his
presence, and his owm country neglected no opportunity to do him honor.
His death in 1778, after six years of invalidism resulting from an attack of
apoplexy, was recognized as a national calamity; the University of Upsala
went into mourning, and the King ordered a medal to be struck in his
memory.

Although cramped by poverty during the earlier part of his career, pros-
perity did not long withhold her smile. Not only were the nobles of his
country his patrons, but he was an especial favorite of both King Frederic
and his queen. Through various emoluments showered upon him, he was
able, later in life, to purchase a large estate and to construct for himself a

12 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

museum, wherein he gathered the largest collection of botanical treasures
that at that time had anywhere been brought together. He was happy in
his domestic relations, and lived to see his son succeed to his chair at the
University of Upsala.

Although Linnseus's publications relate mainly to botany and medicine,
they cover the whole realm of natural history. His earliest contribution to
science is generally considered to be his " Florula Lapponica," the first part
of which appeared in the Transactions of the Swedish Academy in 1732.^
This was followed by the first edition of his " Systema Naturse," published
in Leyden in 1735. The " Fundamenta Botanica " followed in 1736, and
was later enlarged and republished as the " Philosophia Botanica," in 1751.
During the next ten years various other botanical publications appeared in
rapid succession. His " Fauna Suecica," published in 1746, was his first
special work relating to zoology. It is also notable as being the first work
especially devoted to the entire fauna of any country. It was republished,
with many additions, in 1761. Other botanical and several medical works
followed during the next seven years, including his monumental " wSpecies
Plantarum," published in 1753. In the same year also appeared the " Mu-
seum Tessianum," consisting chiefly of descriptions of minerals and fossils,
the latter mainly shells and corals, and in 1754 the "Museum Adolphi
Friderici," relating exclusively to exotic animals. This was a folio with
thirty-three plates, the most extensive and most elaborately illustrated of
all of Linnseus's works. Two important medical works appeared in 1760,
and his third zoological work, the " Museum Ludoviciae Ulricse," in 1764,
a thick octavo, to which was annexed the second part of the "Museum
Adolphi Friderici."

During these thirty years of marvelous scientific activity, Linnaeus also
contributed many papers to the Transactions of the Upsala and Stockholm
academies and to the "Amoenitates Academici." The latter, in ten octavo
volumes, consist of dissertations or academical theses, mostly by his students,
selected, edited and published by him, and thus may be regarded as of equal
authority with his own writings. Seven of these volumes were published
during his lifetime, and contain a number of his own minor papers.

This brief outline of Linnseus's life, his opportunities, and the published
results of his scientific labors, affords the basis for the consideration of
Linnaeus as a zoologist. As has been shown, he was primarily a botanist;
he was also a mineralogist, an entomologist and a conchologist, but only
incidentally a vertebrate zoologist. In this field his interest was less strong,
his opportunities for research the most restricted. His zoological writings,

1 His Hortus Uplandicus is said to have appeared one year earlier. See List of the Works
of Linnaeus, in Jardine's Naturalist's Library, Vol. I, 1833, p. xvii, footnote.

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 13

exclusive of a few minor papers, are comprised in the "Fauna Suecica," the
"Museum Adolphi Friderici," the " Museum Ludovicise Ulricse " and the
several editions of his " Systema Naturae." The first edition, appearing in
1735, was a folio of only 12 pages, consisting merely of a conspectus of his
Systema in tabular form. The second edition, published in 1740, was
an octavo of 40 pages, in which were added, for the animal kingdom, the
characters of the groups. The sixth, published in 1748, was greatly en-
larged, the zoological part alone consisting of 76 pages, illustrated with six
plates, or one for each of his six classes of animals. The tenth, published
in 1758, was in two octavo volumes, of which the zoology formed the first
volume, consisting of 824 pages. The twelfth, and the last edition revised
by the author, was issued in three volumes, the first of which, containing
the zoology and comprising 1427 pages, appeared in 1766. Thus in
thirty-three years this work grew from a brochure of 12 pages to a work
of 2400 pages.

The first edition of the Systema was published when the author was
only twenty-eight years old, during his sojourn in Holland. He had never
previously been beyond the confines of southern Sweden, except on his
journey to Lapland and Finland in 1732, and he had had access to no large
collection of animals. Thus his resources for such an important undertak-
ing were extremely limited, being restricted to his own considerable first-
hand knowledge of the fauna of Sweden, to the few specimens of exotic
animals he had been able to see in Lund, Upsala and Stockholm, and to the
scanty literature of the subject there available. When the second edition
appeared, in 1740, he had spent less than three years and a half in foreign
countries, mainly in Holland with single brief visits to London and Paris;
but his interests on these occasions were botanical and not zoological.

The sixth edition (the third revised by the author), published in 1748,
was in effect a synopsis of the fauna of Sweden, filled in, as regards the fauna
of the rest of the world, by compilations from his predecessors. Strange as
it may seem, outside of the tropical genera Simia, Bradypus, Dasypus,
Myrmecophaga and Manis, this edition enumerates only thirteen species of
mammals not found in Sweden. Only 140 are recorded for his whole class
Animalium quadrupedium, one-third of which are Scandinavian.

This analysis could be extended to other classes with practically similar
results. The class Insecta, for example, includes only thirteen species that
are not also recorded in the "Fauna Suecica," showing how limited was his
knowledge of the world's fauna at 1748.

The tenth edition (the fourth revised by the author), published in 1758,
is the epoch-making work in the history of zoology, as in this the binomial
system of nomenclature for the whole animal kingdom is introduced for the

14 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

first time. The work is also greatly enlarged, and the classification greatly
improved, especially that of the mammals, which class is now for the first
time aptly designated Mammalia. The ordinal term Primates is substituted
for Anthropomorpha of the sixth and previous edition, the sloths (genus
Bradypus) are removed from it, the genus Lemur is added as a new genus,
and the bats are transferred to it from the Ferae. A new order, Bruta, is
made up of his former third order Agrise (now suppressed) and of such other
extremely heterogeneous elements as the elephant, the manatee, sloths,
ant-eaters and the scaly ant-eaters. The order Ferse consists of six properly
associated genera; the armadillos, insectivores and bats, formerly included
in it, being removed elsewhere. His fourth order, Bestise, is a new group,
composed of the pigs, armadillos, opossums and insectivores. The fifth
order, Glires, is a natural group, except for the inclusion of the genus Rhino-
ceros, novv' most strangely placed with the squirrels and mice. His sixth
order, Pecora, is retained as in the previous editions, and is also a natural
group. The seventh, Belluse, is a new ordinal group, consisting of the
genera Equus and Hippopotamus, transferred from the here disrupted order
Jumenta of previous editions. The Cete, now removed by him from the
fishes, form his eighth and last order. This reconstruction of the ordinal
groups is a great improvement: five new genera are added, two old ones
eliminated, and the number of species is increased from 140 to 185. In
some of the other classes there are similar radical changes, but there is not
time to refer to them.

The twelfth, and the last edition revised by the author, published in ] 766,
shows many improvements over the tenth. It is greatly increased in bulk
through the addition of many new genera and a large number of new species.
The classification is also judiciously modified at many points. Taking
again the class of mammals for illustration, the number of orders is reduced
from eight to seven, through the^i^uppression of the grossly unnatural order
Bestise and the transference of its genera to other associations, with, however,
the retrograde change of placing the insectivores and the genus Didelpkis
among the Ferae. The Glires is modified by the removal of the genus
Rhinoceros to the order Belluse and the addition to it of Ncctilio, a genus
of bats. The order Bruta is the same incongruous association of elephants,
manatees, sloths and ant-eaters as in the tenth edition.

The orders of mammals as now left correspond in .several instances
very nearly with those of our modern systems, notably the Primates, Glires,
Pecora and Cete. The Ferae of the tenth edition corresponds to the modern
Carnivora, but in the twelfth he made the mistake of putting back into it
the marsupials and the insectivores. His order Belluae being essentially
the modern suborder Perissodactyla, his order Bruta is the only grossly
incongruous association of types.

BICENTENARY OF LINN.EUS 15

The only previous classification of mammals with which Linnaeus's
need to be compared is Ray's, published in 1693, whose system, taken as a
whole, is far more artificial than Linnaeus's. Naturally there are some
striking coincidences of grouping, and in the characters employed by the
two authors. As to the latter, Ray so well covered the field that there was
little left for Linnaeus to add, since during the interval between Ray and
Linnaeus not much was learned about the anatomy and relations of the
ordinal groups of mammals. Doubtless Linnaeus was influenced, in his
removal of the cetaceans from the fish to the mammal class, by the systems
of his contemporaries, Klein (1751) and Brisson (1756), in which respect
only are their systems better or less artificial than his. Inasmuch, however,
as Brisson divided mammals into eighteen orders instead of seven, he
escaped some of the grotesque combinations made by Linnaeus: on the
other hand, he gave undue emphasis to relatively unimportant differences.

Linnaeus's classification of birds is closely modeled upon that of Ray,
and his departures from it are seldom improvements. His lack of knovdedge
of ornithology is strikingly apparent through his repealed association of
very unlike species in the same genus, as where a penguin is combined Vv'ith
a tropic bird to form his genus Pha'etlion, and another species of penguin
with an albatross to form his genus Diomedea. In the tenth edition he
recorded only about 550 species of birds; in the twelfth, this number was
raised to nearly a thousand, mainly on the basis of Brisson's great work,
which appeared in 1760. The greater part were based on the writings of
previous authors ; probably less than one-fourth of them being known to him
from specimens.

His class Amphibia contained four orders, of which the fourth consisted
of cartilaginous and other wholly unrelated fishes, and shows how slight
was his acquaintance with the lower classes of vertebrates. His first order,
Reptilia, includes such diverse animals as turtles, lizards, salamanders,
frogs and toads. The snakes formed his second order, Serpentes.

His arrangement of the fishes was originally based on that of i\.rtedi,
whose " Ichthyologia " Linnaeus published while sojourning in Holland, in
1738, after Artedi's untimely death by accidental drowning.

His class Insecta is nearly equivalent to the modern subphylum Arthro-
poda, as it includes the Arachnida and the Crustacea.

His class Vermes was the waste-basket of his system, including all the
forms of animal life that were neither vertebrates nor insects, which he dis-
tributed into five orders, some of them as heterogeneous in character as the
class itself. The second order, Mollusca, comprised all sorts of soft-bodied
animals, mostly marine, as slugs, sea-anemones, ascidians, holothurians,
cuttle-fishes, star-fishes, sea-urchins and jelly-fishes. The animals now com-
monly known as Mollusca formed his third order, Testacea.

16 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

It is not, however, just to judge Linnseus's work by the standards of
to-day. The above comparison of the zoological part of the "Systema
Naturae" with our present knowledge of animals is not to be taken as a
disparagement: we merely note the progress of zoology during the last
century and a half of the world's history. Linnaeus was a born systematist;
his energy and industry were enormous ; his isolation promoted independence
and originality. He devised new classifications, and thoroughly systema-
tized not only the knowledge of his predecessors, but the vast increment
he himself added. He inspired his students with his own enthusiasm,
taught them his own advanced methods, and influenced a goodly number
of them to undertake natural history explorations in distant and zoologically
unknoTvn parts of the world.

In special lines of research he was far behind several of his contempo-
raries, notably Brisson, in respect to both mammals and birds. But he
nearly doubled the number of known forms of reptiles, amphibians and
fiishes, and increased many fold the number of species of Coelenterates, on
the basis of wholly new material gathered through his own efforts.

Disgusted with the needlessly detailed accounts and repetitions that
characterized the writings of most of his predecessors, he unfortunately
adopted the extreme of condensation, thereby adding greatly to the diffi-
culties of his successors in determining to just what forms the thousands of
new names he introduced really belonged. Many of his species, based on
the accounts given by pre\'ious authors, were also composite, often con-
taining very diverse elements. But this detracts little from his credit. As
one of his appreciative biographers has tersely put it, "He found biology a
chaos; he left it a cosmos."

Linnasus's beneficent influence upon biology was hardly less as a nomen-
clator than as a taxonomist. He not only invented a descriptive tei-minology
for animals and plants, but devised a system of nomenclature at once simple
and eflScient, and which for a hundred and fifty years has been accepted
without essential modification.

Linnaeus divided the three kingdoms of nature into classes, the classes
into orders, the orders into genera, the genera into species, under which
latter he sometimes recognized varieties. Of these groups, as he understood
them, he gave clear definitions, but they were in most cases much more
comprehensive than the limits now assigned to groups of corresponding
rank. His genera correspond in some cases to groups now termed orders,
and frequently to the modern idea of family; in some cases they contained
species now placed in separate orders. Prior to Linnaeus, these groups had
less definite significance, and were often designated by a phrase instead
of a single word. Species were indicated only by a cumbersome diagnosis

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 17

intended to express their chief distinctive characters. For this, Linnaeus
substituted a single word, an innovation the merits of which were at once
almost universally recognized. But Linnaeus reached this solution of a
grave inconvenience somewhat slowly, and not till 1753 did he fully adopt
the nomen triviale, when he introduced it into botany in his " Species Plan-
tarum," which is taken by botanists as the point of departure for the bino-
mial system. In the following year, 1754, he introduced it into zoology,
using it throughout his "Museum Adolphi Friderici" for all the animals
catalogued or described in this superb work; namely, 39 species of mammals,
23 of birds, 90 of reptiles and amphibians, 91 of fishes and 64 of invertebrates,
or for an aggregate of 307 species of animals. Four years later, in the
tenth or 1758 edition of his " Systema Naturae," he adopted it for the whole
animal kingdom, which date is now generally taken as the beginning of the
binomial system for zoology. The importance and utility of this simple
innovation in a matter of nomenclature are beyond estimate, and if Linnaeus
had done nothing else for the advancement of biology, he would be entitled
to a conspicuous niche in the temple of fame and to the gratitude of all sub-
sequent workers in this field. He for the first time gave technical standing
to the systematic names, both generic and specific, of all the plants and ani-
mals known at the dates when he introduced the nomen trivmle into the
nomenclature of botany and zoology.

It is of interest in this connection to note the number of species of animals
known to Linnaeus at the date of publication of the last edition of the " Sys-
tema Naturae," — the number kno^^Ti to him personally, and the number
recorded respectively from North America and from South America.

Of mammals, the whole number of species recorded is 190, of which three-
fourths are based on the descriptions of previous authors. Only 48 were
American, — 12 from North America and 36 from South America. The
5 North American mammals known to Linnaeus from specimens were the
raccoon, star-nosed mole, common mole, flying squirrel and chipmunk.
The number of species at present know^n from North America is 600, ex-
cluding subspecies. The number for the world, including the extinct as
well as the living, is about 10,000 as against less than 200 recorded by
Linnaeus.

Of birds, about 925 are recorded of the 15,000 known to-day. The 200
known from America are divided about equally between North America and
South America, only 50 of which were described from specimens.

The amphibia and reptiles number collectively about 250, of which about
one-third are American, 40 per cent of the latter being North American
and 60 per cent South American. The North American include 3 sala-
manders, the box-turtle, the six-lined lizard, the blue-tailed lizard and 14

18 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

snakes. The greater part of the 20 North American species of reptiles and
amphibians known to him personally were based on specimens transmitted
by his former student, Dr. C. D. Garden, from the Carolinas, and on a few-
sent from Pennsylvania by Pehr Kalm, also one of his students. Thus the
greater part of the snakes of the eastern United States became known to
Linnteus prior to 1766.

About 500 species of fishes are recorded, of which 100 are American,
divided about equally between North and South America. Forty of the
nearly 60 North American species described are based on specimens sent
from the Carolinas by Dr. Garden, the others mainly on specimens in the
museum of King Frederic.

There is not time to notice in detail the various classes of Ccelenterates.
A few words about insects will serve as a general illustration for this phylum.
Linnaeus recorded about 2400 species, the greater part of which he was the
first to describe; about 300,000 are now recognized. Of the insects
known to him, 65 per cent are recorded in the second (1701) edition of his
" Fauna Sueccia," and many of the remainder are European, so that his
knowledge of exotic species was exceedingly restricted. Of Coleoptera he
recorded about 800 species; the number now known is estimated at 12,000.
Of Lepidoptera he recorded about 800; 7000 are now known from North
America alone. Of Diptera he recorded 278 species, of which 200 were
from Sweden; 12,000 are now known from North America.

Linnseus's system of classification was based on a few external characters,
and w^as recognized by himself as artificial and provisional. It was intended
only as a stepping-stone to better things, when the structure and affinities
of animals should become better known. The statistics already given in-
dicate how limited was his knowledge of the world's fauna; his classifica-
tion of animals shows how little he loiew of their structure, and how often he
was misled by superficial resemblances. Yet his "Systema Naturae" was the
working basis of all naturalists for the next half-century.^ Twelve editions
were published during his lifetime, and it was later translated into several
of the continental languages. To such an extent was it regarded as final by
many subsequent naturalists that, when his groups began to be changed and
new genera interpolated, it was deemed by some of them little less than sacri-
lege. When convenience demanded subdivision of the larger genera, owing
to the great number of new species that had become known since 1766, it

I Turton, in his Life and Writings of Linn6, says, "To this system may be justly applied
the nervous observations of Dr. Johnson, in his delineation of the character of Shakespeare:
' The stream of time, which is continually washing away the dissoluble fabrics of other
systems, passes without injury by the adamant of Linn6.'" — William Turton: A General
Syntem oj Nature.. . by Sir Charles Linne, Vol. VII, 1S06, p. [42].

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 19

was quite common to consider the new groups as sections, and to give them
merely vernacular names, or, if their authors were bold enough to designate
them by Latin names, they were commonly called subgenera.

It was not till near the close of the eighteenth century that there arose a
new class of naturalists, the anatomical school, led by the elder Geoffroy
and G. Cuvier, who studied the internal structure of animals as well as their
external parts. It was, however, many years before the new systems began
to displace or greatly to modify the long-accepted and strongly intrenched
Linnsean methods of grouping animals.

The great advance in biologic knowledge since the time of Linnaeus can-
not be easily measured; it can be suggested by noting the fact that compara-
tive anatomy, embryology, histology, paleontology, evolutionism and many
kindred lines of research, have nearly all had their origin or principal develop-
ment within the last century, all converging for the solution of the genetic
relationships of animals and the origin of life. Linnaeus, in an oration deliv-
ered in 1743,^ held that each species of animal originated from a single pair,
citing as incontrovertible proof the Mosaic account of the creation. It is
indeed a long look back to the middle of the eighteenth century, when his
labors marked a new era in the history of biology. In commemorating to-day
the two hundredth anniversary of his birth, we honor ourselves by showing
our esteem for the greatest naturalist of the eighteenth century.

> In his oration De telluris habitabilis incremento, delivered and first published in 1743
and republished in 1744, and again in the second volume of the Amoenitates Academicas, in
1751, he gives his reasons for believing "that at the beginning to the world there was created
one single sexual pair of every species of living thing.

"To the proofs of this proposition," he continues, "I request those who are my auditors to
lend a favorable ear and willing attention.

"Our holy Faith instructs us to believe that the Divinity created a single pair of the human
kind, one individual male, the other female. The sacred writing of Moses acquaint us that they
were placed in the Garden of Eden, and that Adam there gave names to every species of animal,
God causing them to appear before him.

"By a sexual pair I mean one male and one female in every species where the individuals
differ in sex." — J. F. Brand's translation, in Select Dissertations from the Amoenitates Aca-
demicce, 1781, pp. 75, 76.

20 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The following address was prepared for the celebration, but was read
only by title. It is inserted here on account of its close relations with the
address of Dr. Allen.

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 21

LINN^US AS AN INTERMEDIARY BETWEEN ANCIENT AND
MODERN ZOOLOGY; HIS VIEWS ON THE CLASS

MAMMALIA.

By W. K. Gregory, M. A.

In connection Avith the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Carl
von Linn6, or Carolus Linnaeus, it may not be inappropriate to consider
him in his capacity of bridging over the gap between ancient and medieval
zoology on the one hand and modern zoology on the other, and further to
glance at the principles and facts upon which he based his two great con-
tributions to the broader knowledge of the class of which man is the domi-
nating member. For this purpose the history of zoology may be divided,
in a general way, into seven epochs: the Aristotelian, the Scholastic, the
Renaissance, the Raian, the Linnaean, the Cuvierian, and the Darwinian.
There are also two axioms which it will be well to bear in mind. The
first is, that Linnaeus became a point of departure in the history of modem
biology, only because he was in turn the product of the intersection of many
important historical series which ramify and intertwine indefinitely, and
stretch back into the remote past of every aspect of life. The second axiom
is, that every new idea, or, for that matter, every new event, is the fertile
hybrid resulting from the fortuitous crossing of several specifically distinct
old ideas or events.

The Aristotelian Epoch.

The first epoch under consideration is that of Aristotle, of the fourth
century B.C., and it may be characterized as the initial analytical epoch.
Aristotle's theory of the genetic relationship of the chain of beings from
polyp to man did not, of course, materially influence Linnaeus. The idea
of evolution was not destined to come to its fruition through Aristotle, the
schoolmen, or even in Linnaeus or Cuvier. The true relation of Aristotle
as a systematic zoologist to Ray and Linnaeus is exhibited in the following
well-known citations from "The Parts of Animals."

" Some animals are viviparous, some oviparous, some vermiparous. The vivipa-
rous are such as man and the horse, and all those animals which haA'^e hair; and of
the aquatic animals, the whale kind, as the dolphin and cartilaginous fishes fin refer-
ence to the viviparity of certain sharks] (Book I, Chap. V). Of quadnipeds which
have blood and are viviparous, some are (as to their extremities) many-cloven, as the
hands and feet of man. For some are many-toed, as the lion, the dog, the panther;
some are bifid, and have hoofs instead of nails, as the sheep, the goat, the elephant.

22 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the hippopotamus; and some have undivided feet, as the solid-hoofed animals, the
horae and ass. The swine kind share both characters [an allusion to the 'mule
footed' swine, monstrosities in which the median digits are fused, and terminate in a
soUd composite hoof]" (Book II, Chap. V).

Ray and later writers probably had this passage in mind when they
used the descriptive terms "multifido," "bifido," "solidungula," "ungulata,"
"unguiculata," fissipedes." Here, also, attention is directed to the feet as
exhibiting characteristic differences. In another passage Aristotle says, —

" Animals have also great differences in the teeth both when compared with each
other and with man. For all quadrupeds which have blood and are \i\iparous have
teeth. And in the first place some are ambidentaP (having teeth in both jaws);
and some are not so, wanting the front teeth in the upper jaw. Some have neither
front teeth nor horns, as the camel; some have tusks,^ as the boar; some have not.
Some have serrated teeth,^ as the lion, the panther, the dog; some have the teeth
unvaried,^ as the horse and the ox; for the animals which vary their cutting teeth
have all serrated teeth. No animal has both tusks and horns; nor has any animal
with serrated teeth either of those weapons. The greater part have the front teeth
cutting, and those within broad " (Book I, Chap. II).

This passage evidently directed the attention of later writers to the
importance of the teeth as a means of distinguishing and hence of classi-
fying mammals, and we shall see that Ray and, later, Linnaeus were quick
to avail themselves of the suggestion.

Aristotle was quite unconscious of the classification that has been ascribed
to him, as Whewell ^ shows; but "Aristotle does show, as far as could be
done at bis time, a perception of the need of groups and of names of groups
in the study of the animal kingdom, and thus may justly be held up as the
great figure in the prelude to the formation of systems which took place in
more advanced scientific times." Wbewell also quotes passages that show
Aristotle's recognition of the lack »f generic names to denominate natural
groups. Aristotle says that "of the class of viviparous quadrupeds there
are many genera,^ but these again are without names, except specific names,
such as man, lion, stag, horse, dog and the like. Yet there is a genus of
animals that have manes, as the horse, the ass, the oreus, the ginnus, the
innits and the animal which in S}Tia is called keminus (mule) . . . Where-
fore," he adds (that is, because we do not possess genera and generic names
of this kind), "we must take the species separately and study the nature of
each." "These fassacjes" Whewell continues, "afford us sufficient ground

' A|X({>o8ovTa. - XavXto'Sovra. ' Kapxopo'SovTa.

* AvtTroXXaKTa. « Op. cU.. III., p. 350. * EiST].

BICENTENARY OF LINNAEUS 23

for placing Aristotle at the Jwad of those naturalists to whom the first views of
the necessity of a zoological system are due" (Op. cit., p. 352).

The Scholastic Epoch.

From the time of Aristotle and his classical successors until the rise of
scholasticism in the eleventh centur}^, Europe, as every one knows, was too
much preoccupied with world-wide displacements and readjustments of
peoples and of institutions to pay particular attention to natural science;
and even the Scholastic Epoch in the history of philosophy and science
was chiefly occupied with the further development and systematization of
the great body of religious and metaphysical doctrines. So far as natural
history is concerned, it is perhaps rather a further interregnum than an
epoch, rather an era or lapse of uneventful time than a time of the slow
ascension of some great illuminative idea. The anthropocentric idea domi-
nated in natural history as the geocentric idea dominated in astronomy;
hence a knowledge of the real or supposed properties of animals and
particularly of plants was chiefly cultivated in connection with alchemy,
magic and materia medica. The medieval imagination, full of mysticism,
eager for the uncanny ^nd fantastic and teeming with images of ubiquitous
devils, flourished on the marvelous tales of a "Sir John Maundeville," and
peopled the earth with the monsters w^hich so long sur^^ved and ramped
in the Terrse Incognitse of world maps. In the schools, citations from
authorities were accepted in lieu of proof, and the simple zoology of Aristotle
and the scriptures was deeply covered by the accretions of learned exegesis.
Scholasticism reached its prime as early as the thirteenth century, in the
system of the illustrious St. Thomas Aquinas, the "princeps scholasticorum."
Afterward, while the renaissance movement was discovering new worlds in
all directions, scholasticism in general (but with some brilliant exceptions)
rapidly reached the "phylogerontic stage" of its evolution, and produced all
sorts of bizarre specializations in terminology and in dialectics.

It has been said of the scholastic philosophy that it "vigorously exercised
the understanding without bringing it to any conclusions." However this
may be, it cannot be doubted that the very' excesses of scholasticism stim-
ulated the reactive return to experience, which gave rise incidentally to
biological science. The schoolmen furthermore perpetuated and aroused
interest in Aristotle's analyses, and gave currency to many methods of
analysis and description. Among these we may cite, first, the dichotomous
method of division, which is a forerunner of modern classifications; second,
the logical concepts of genus and species. Especially noteworthy was the
expansion of classical Latin into a highly specialized language of philosophy
and science.

24 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Renaissance Epoch.

Biological science, and especially zoology, did not respond fully to the
impulse of the Renaissance movement until literature, politics, astronomy
and geographical discovery had made the most signal advances. Hence in
Aldrovandi (1522-1605) and Gesner (1516-65) the superstitions and myths
of the middle ages still linger, while the systematic work of future genera-
tions is initiated in the extensive illustrated catalogues and descriptions of
plants and animals. On the philosophical side of zoology, the Englishman
Wotton, in his "De Differentiis Animalium" (Paris, 1552), "rejected the
legendary and fantastic accretions [of medieval zoology] and returned to
Aristotle and the observation of nature" (Lankester^). One of the con-
temporaries of Gesner and Wotton was the founder of anatomy, Andreas
Vesalius (1514-64), who boldly broke with tradition, and declared that the
source of knowledge of the human body should be, not Galen, but the
human body itself.

Near the end of this period, the botanist, Cesalpino (Csesalpinus) of
Arezzo (1519-1778), a celebrated scholastic pliilosopher, published his volu-
minous work "De Plantis" (1583). In this work, which was inspired by
the new idea of direct observation, the confused arrangements of plants of
the earlier herbalists were replaced by an orderly classification suggested
by the brigades of an army, and founded upon the number, the position
and the figure of the reproductive parts. He divided plants into ten great
classes, which were again subdivided; to these assemblages he gave mono-
mial names in substantive form. Linnseus himself says of him, that,
"though the first in attempting to form natural orders, he observed as
many as the most successful later writers" (Whewell, Op. cit., pp. 282,
283).

A reason for this precocious development of a natural classification of
plants may be sought in the very multiplicity of kinds and the large herbaria
and horticultural gardens in existence, which necessitated some sort of orderly
arrangement and which would assist the eager student to recognize related
series. We note in contrast the delayed progress of the classification of the
mammals due to the comparative fewness of known forms, the greater
complexity of organization and the difficulties of observation.

The Raian Epoch, the Dawn of Modern Zoology.

Among tho.se who contributed the data for Linnjeus's generalizations,
no name is more important, at least in the history of vertebrate zoology, than

' E. Ray Lankester, The History and Scope of Zoology, In The Advancement of Science
London, 1890, p. 293.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 25

that of John Ray. Accordingly, the fourth epoch under consideration may
be termed the Raian Epoch, and culminates with the publication in 1693
of Ray's "Synopsis Methodica Animalium Quadrupedum et Serpentini
G^eneris," which is one of the great landmarks in the history of classification.
Ray's debt to the past is shown in the facts that his lucid tabular analyses
of the common structural features of animals are arranged dichotomously;
that in each division and subdivision a single adjective or adjectival phrase
indicates the most important common feature of the animals in question,
and that these terms are, as we have seen, in many cases borrowed from
Aristotle.

Ray, like Linnaeus, gave more attention to plants than to animals, and
depended upon his colleague, Willughby, for much of the data, especially
in the fishes. Like Linneeus also, Ray had a superb gift of order and a
philosophical mind that made him a worthy countryman and contemporary
of Sir Isaac Newton.

In his tabular analysis, Ray distinctly foreshadows Linnaeus in the fol-
lowing points : —

1. The higher vertebrates are contrasted with the fishes as breathing
by lungs instead of gills.

2. The whales are classed with the viviparous animals and expressly
removed from the fishes, from which they were further distinguished by the
horizontality of the tail-fin. This step, however, was felt to be so radical
that Ray afterwards constructed a definition which included both whales
and fishes.

3. As remarked by Gill, the terrestrial or quadruped mammals are
bracketed with the aquatic as "Vivipara," and contrasted with the "Ovi-
para" or " Aves." "The Vivipara are exactly co-extensive with Mammalia,
but the word ' vivipara ' was used as an adjective and not as a novm. " ' This
distinction seems to have been an important one, when substance was so
carefully distinguished from attribute. Ray emphasized the common
attributes of all the terrestrial hairy quadrupeds, of the amphibious hairy
animals such as the seals and manati, and of the purely aquatic and fish-like
Cetaceans; but he does not seem to have insisted that all these animals
agreed in essence and substance as well as in attribute, so that they should
require a new substantive name such as Linnaeus afterward applied to them.

4. The double ventricle is noted as characteristic of both Vivipara and
Ovipara.

5. In order to associate the "manati" and other amphibious mammals
with their terrestrial congeners, the term "hairj- animals" is employed as
more comprehensive than quadrupeds.

1 The Story of a Word Mammal, in Popular Science Monthly, Vol. LXI. September, 1902,
pp. 43*-438.

26 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ray further set the standard for Linnseus in his concise descriptions of
European and foreign mammals, especially those described by travelers in
America and in the East. Ray often used the term "species" merely as
the equivalent of the middle English "spece," which survives in our word
spice," and meant "kind:" it was also equivalent to the logical "species"
(c/. the Greek etSos) of the schoolmen, and is exemplified in Ray and Wil-
lughby's "Historia Piscium" in such phrases as "clarias niloticus Belonii
mustelse fluviatilis species," "bagre piscis barbatiac aculeati species." But
Ray also used the term " species " in quite a Linnsean manner, as in the
names Ovis laticauda, Ovis strepsiceros and Ovis domestica. In form, at least,
this foreshadows the binomial system of nomenclature and the recognition of
the species in general as a supposedly objective reality and the unit of classifi-
cation. The form of Ray's specific definitions seems, however, to imply that
the term "species" in Ray's mind was often more a "differentia," or specific
adjective modifying the generic concept than a fully developed substantive
name, and Ray did not apparently realize the convenience of applying the
binomial method of nomenclature universally. Even Linnaeus at first intro-
duced the specific, "trivial," or common name, merely as a marginal
index or symbol of the full specific phrase. Ray recognized the considerable
variability of species, but believed also in their separate creation and fixity.
He frequently adverts to the internal characters of animals; and his book
shows, that even by his time a considerable number of observations on
the soft parts of animals had already accumulated.

The Linn^an Epoch.

The work of Ray in botany and zoology fully prepared the way for
Linnseus, whose epoch may be characterized as the Legislative Epoch, be-
cause his methods of description and classification, and especially his nomen-
clature exerted such profound formative and regulative influence upon the
work of his contemporaries and successors that he was called the " lawgiver
of natural history."

LinncBUs's Broader Contributions to tJie Class Mammalia.

One of the most enduring claims of Linnseus upon the grateful memory
of posterity arises from his felicitous coinage of the word "mammalia"
(animals with mammae or breasts after analogy with Latin words like ani-
mal ^) as a class name for the forms characterized by Ray as "viviparous
hairy animals." Thus not only the terrestrial hairy oviparous quadrupeds,

I Theodore Gill, /. c.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 27

but also the aquatic Vivipara now called Cetaceans and Sirenians, were for
the first time definitely included under a single class name.

In attempting to appraise Linnseus's contributions to the broader loiowl-
edge of the class of mammals, we must bear in mind what Dr. J. A. Allen
has well shown/ namely: that Linnaeus was primarily a botanist, that his
interest in mammals was incidental, that his opportunities for studying
them were very limited, that his first-hand knowledge of extra-European
mammals was practically nil, and finally that several of his ordinal group-
ings of mammals (e. g., rhinoceros with the rodents) now appear highly
unnatural and even ludicrous.

On the other hand, there are certain considerations which may prevent
us from thinking any the less of his judgment and genius on that account.
Although Linnaeus may have known very little about extra-European
mammals, he had, nevertheless, a fairly good conception of the essential
features of mammals as a class, as shown by his definition in the tenth edition
of the "Systema Naturae" (1758). Here in concise phrase he states that
mammals have a heart with two auricles and two ventricles, with hot red
blood; that the lungs breathe rhythmically; that the jaws are slung as in
other vertebrates, but "covered," i. e., with flesh, as opposed to the "naked"
jaws of birds; that the penis is intromittent ; that the females are viviparous,
and secrete and give milk; that the means of perception are the tongue,
nose, eyes, ears and the sense of touch; that the integument is provided
with hairs, which are sparse in tropical and still fewer in aquatic mammals;
that the body is supported on four feet, save in the aquatic forms, in which
the hind limbs are said to be coalesced into a tail (the only erroneou.'^ idea
in the whole definition).

Many of these characters had previously been noticed by Ray in his
description of the hairy quadrupeds. It is not impossible, too, that Lin-
naeus may have been assisted to the comprehension of the essential features
of the mammals through his friendship with Bernard de Jussieu, who is
said by Isidore Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire to have induced him to include the
Cetaceans in the class Mammalia; and possibly he also owed something
to the researches of Klein and Brisson. In spite of all this, Linnaeus's own
studies in medicine, in Holland, doubtless made him familiar with the
anatomy of at least one mammal, man; and on his journeys through the
north of Europe he must have observed many other mammals at close range.
Thus was Linnaeus prepared for the clear recognition and emphasis of
another fact of far-reaching importance. It was evidently well known
that the anatomy of the hairy quadrupeds was similar in plan, if not in detail,

» See pp. 9 ff.

28 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

to that of man, and we find Descartes (for example, in his "Discourse on
Method" Part V., 1637) advising those who wished to understand his
theory of the action of the lungs and circulatory system, "to take the trouble
of getting dissected in their presence the heart of some large animal pos-
sessed of lungs, for this is throughout sujficienily like the human" (ital. mihi).
And it was further known that of all animals the monkeys are most nearly
like man, both externally and internally. This was asserted by Aristotle
and other classical authors, but was fully demonstrated in a carefully pre-
pared and illustrated work ^ on the anatomy and appearance of animals
from the Jardin du Roi, by a committee of savants of the French Academy,
appointed by the Grand Monarch.

This work and these important observations may or may not have come
under the notice of Linnaeus on the occasion of his visit to Paris in 1738.
At any rate, he did not hesitate to follow the logical consequences of these
facts, namely, that in a strictly zoological classification, man would be
grouped not only in the class Mammalia, but even in the same ordinal divi-
sion with the monkeys. Accordingly, in the tenth edition of the Systema
the earlier name Anthropomorphse is replaced by Primates, and the genera
Homo, Simia, Lemur and Vespertilio, are grouped under that order. The
Primates were thus regarded as the chiefs of the hierarchy of terrestrial
beings, and consequently, as in nearly all subsequent schemes down to the
Darwinian Epoch, head the classified legions of creatures. Linnseus was too
often at fault in surmising the generic and ordinal affinities of the species of
the lower vertebrates; but this bold allocation of man to the order Primates
surely bears the marks of genius, and led the way to the modern generaliza-
tion that man is knit by ties of blood kinship to the Primates, and more
remotely to the whole organic world.

LinnoBus's Princi'ples in his Classification of tlie Mammalia.

The diagnostic definition given by Linnaeus of the order Primates may
be cited because it rests upon the principles and theories which guided him
in classification and which led to his most successful groupings, as well as
to his serious blunders. This definition is as follows: —

Inferior front teeth iv, parallel, laniariform [canine] teeth solitary [that is, in a single

pair above and below].
Mamniie pectoral, one pair.
The anterior extremities are hands.
The arms are separated by clavicles, the gait usually on all fours ("incessu tetrapodo

volgo").
They climb trees and pluck the fruits thereof.

» Mgraoires pour servir & I'histoire naturelle des aainiaux, &la Haye, 1715 (4to, 2 vols.),
redig^es par Perrault et Dodart.

BICENTENARY OF LINNAEUS 29

This definition was clearly insufficient to exclude all extraneous genera
from this really natural order; for (1) under Lemur Linnceus included, not
only all the then known forms now recognized as the suborder Lerauroidea,
but also the "Flying Lemur," Galeopithecus, which properly either forms
an order by itself with no near affinities with the Primates, or is at most a
suborder of the Cheiroptera; (2) the definition also included " Vespertilio,"
i. e., the bats, excepting Noctilio, an order more nearly related to the Insecti-
vores than to the Primates.

Many of the characters selected by Linnaeus for his ordinal diagnoses
were of the "adaptive" or superficial kind, which are now known to have
been most easily modifiable by changes in the external or internal environ-
ment. The reason for this mistake was, that Linnseus regarded the mode
of sustenance of a group as one of its most deep-seated attributes and most
surely indicative of more or less hidden affinities with other groups. Lin-
naeus was constantly searching for natural groups, but he did not realize
that the natural affinity of the members of the larger groups was due to
descent from common ancestors, just as in the case of members of the same
species. An example of his reliance upon sustenance is seen in his defini-
tion, in the tenth edition of the Systema, of the order Ferse, the Carnivora
of later authors. Here "sustenance by rapine, upon carcasses ravenously
snatched" is evidently felt to be connected with "front teeth in both jaws:
superior vi, all acute," with "laniariform teeth [canines] solitary," with
"claws on the feet acute."

One of his dicta in botany was, that a character of great systematic
importance in one group may be ver}' variable in another; consequently he
did not mention " sustenance " under Bruta, but contented himself with the
two characters "front teeth none either above or below" and "gait awkward
{incessus meptior)." As this order included the elephant, the manatee,
the sloth, the great ant-eater and the scaly ant-eater, it has been ju.stly cited
as a grossly unnatural assemblage, and the grouping accounted for by
Linngeus's ignorance of the animals composing it.

Now it is possible that Linnaeus himself did not regard this assemblage
as natural, but merely as a convenient artificial grouping. But I am more
disposed to attribute its existence to his habit of searching for hidden affini-
ties below the most obvious external differences, as when he placed the seals
in the order Ferae, joined the bats with the Primates, the horse and the
hippopotamus, the rhinoceros with the Rodents, and the pig with the Insecti-
vores (in the order Bestiae).

Linnaeus recognized that the ordinal classification of the mammals was
a difficult problem, as is shown by the conspicuous changes (not always
improvements in our eyes) and redistributions which he made between the

30 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

first and "tenth" editions of the Systema and further by the fact that Erx-
leben, who revised and extended the Systema (1777), abandoned the ordi-
nal divisions entirely and merely listed the genera seriatim. The difficulty
of the problem is indicated by the fact that Cuvier, with far better material
and more extensive knowledge, was constantly deceived by "adaptive"
(or homoplastic) resemblances. Even Cope, who wrote much on homo-
plastic and convergent evolution, was himself deceived by the similarities
of structure in the marsupial "mole," Notoryctes, and the Cape golden
mole, Chrysochloris, an undoubted insectivore.

The most "inexcusable" blunder of Linnaeus, that of placing the rhino-
ceros with the Rodents under the order "Glircs," may have been due, not
to carelessness, but to the fact that the Indian rhinoceros has a single pair
of close-set cutting incisors in the upper jaw, which oppose the elongate
incisor-like appressed canines of the lower jaw and thus show a superficial
approach to the rodent dentition. If Linn^us had known that Hyrax,
which Pallas described as a Rodent ("Cavia"), had cheek-teeth like those
of Rhinoceros, he doubtless might have felicitated himself upon his supposed
astuteness.

In brief, Linnaeus, as fully shown by Whewell,^ from his profound and
wide botanical knowledge, was acquainted with many natural orders, and
strove constantly to recognize others. He knew that a character of great
diagnostic and fundamental value in one order may be of slight value in
another; he knew that even in a natural order some of the diagnostic and
fundamental characters might be absent in certain members otherwise
clearly allied to a given series. He knew that a natural series is "natural"
because of the totality of its characters, that the "genus makes the character,"
and not vice versa, a hard doctrine to many of his contemporaries. When
Linnaeus had arrived at a conception of any given natural order, he selected
certain characters as diagnostic, but not necessarily universal, and constructed
professedly artificial or only partly natural keys to his "natural" orders.

When Linnaeus turned his attention to the classification of animals, we
may believe that he followed the same principles. In this application of the
principles gained in one subject to the data of another, we have a good
example of the felicitous union of specifically distinct ideas to produce a
line of ideas that are new and very fertile.

The Eelation of Linnaeus to his Successors.

Linnaeus inherited from Ray and from the scholastic system the dogma
of the separate creation and .objective reality of species, which became

> Op. cit., pp. 319-325.

A.VNALS N.Y. Acad. Sci.

Vol. XVIII Plate III.

Courtesy N.V. Botaii. Garden.

W. .\. .Murrill. Photo.

Fig. I. HAMMARBY. THE COUNTRY HOME OF LINNAEUS NEAR

UPSALA SWEDEN.

Courtesy N.^■. Motaii. Garden.

Fig. 2. TABLET PL.\CED ON THi: LIXN.EUS BRIDGE liY THE
NEW YORK ACADE.MY OF SCIENCES.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 31

developed and strengthened in his hands as a result of his observations.
His dictum was species tot sunt diversce quot diversoB fornix ah initio sunt
creates. The resemblances between members of a single species were hence
held to be due to descent from an original pair, and the mutual infertility
of different species to be the natural penalty of the effort to traverse the gaps
established from the beginning.

This view was somewhat modified in later editions of the Systema, in
which Linnaeus held that "all the species of one genus constituted at first
(that is at the Creation) one species, ab initio unam constituerint speciem;
they were subsequently multiplied by hybrid generation that is by inter-
crossing with other species." ^

The general relation of Linnaeus to his successors may be summarized
in a few words. The sixth epoch in the history of zoology extends from the
latter part of the eighteenth to the middle of the nineteenth century, and
may be called the Anatomical Epoch, because, through the labors of Cuvier
and his great English pupil and successor, Richard Owen, the taxonomic
studies of the Linnaean school vvcre supplemented by the establishment and
great development of the sciences of comparative anatomy and paleontol-
ogy. In spite, however, of the improvement and expansion of classification,
its bearing upon evolution was not generally perceived. Cuvier's researches
in these sciences further extended the dogma of the fixity of species; but
Owen, through his broader knowledge, gradually gave up the idea and
became an evolutionist, although not a selectionist.

The seventh epoch, the Darwinian, in which happily we are living, has
seen the overthrow of the traditional doctrine of the fixity of species, and has
initiated the re-examination of all morphological phenomena in the light of
the doctrine of evolution. These morphological facts are reflected more
and more in our evolving classifications, which are the outgrowth of the
Linnaean system, and which now aim to express, not only degrees of homo-
logical resemblances and differences, but also (secondarily) degrees of genetic
kinship.

The great " lawgiver of natural history " is thus seen in his proper per-
spective in a few at least of the series of historical antecedents and conse-
quents which intersected in him, inheriting, as he did on the one hand, the
language and general methods of the past and the doctrine of special
creation; inheriting on the other hand the new spirit and contributions of
Vesalius, Cesalpino, Ray and many others, and building upon this the
foundations of modern botany and zoology.

* Osborn, H. F. From the Greelts to Darwin, p. 129.

32

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

At the close of the reading of Dr. Allen's address, recess was taken till
two o'clock, p.m. During this time the Council entertained at luncheon
at the Hermitage Hotel, near Bronx Park, the delegates of sister societies
and invited guests. Afterward the special exhibits at the Botanical
Museum were examined, and then was delivered the following address.

LINNAEUS AND AMERICAN BOTANY.

By Per Axel Rydberg, Ph. D.

Mr. Chairman, Ladies and Gentlemen:

I I have been asked to make a short address to you on Linnaeus and his
relation to North American botany. That the selection fell on me was not
because I was the most able one to deliver such an address, for there are

THE TWIN-FLOWER, LINN/EA BOREALIS

A plant especially beloved by Linnseua, and dedicated to him by Grono\'ius.

many abler men present, but simply because I was born in the same countr}'
as Linnaeus. In fact, my grandfather came from the same province of
Smaiand and even from a parish adjoining that of Stembrohult. in which
my illustrious countryman was born.

In the early part of the seventeenth century there lived in Jonsboda,

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 33

SmS-land, Sweden, a farmer named Ingemar Svenson. He had three
children, two sons and one daughter, the grandmother of Linnaeus. On
the Jonsboda farm stood a very large linden-tree, so old and with so many
traditions that it was regarded by the people as a holy tree. Any damage
done to this tree, it was claimed, would surely bring misfortune upon the
head of the perpetrator. When the two sons began to study for the ministry,
it was natural that they should think of this tree in selecting a family name.
They called themselves Tiliander; Tilia is the Latin for the linden or bass-
wood, and andros the Greek for man. It may not be amiss to state that at
that time the common people of Sweden did not have any family names,
and this is true to a certain extent even to-day. A man was known by his
given name, the given name of his father with the word son appended, and
the place vvhere he lived. The farmer mentioned above was known as
Ingemar Svenson from Jonsboda. His father's name was Sven Carlson,
and that of his grandfather, Carl Johnson. The names of his two sons
would have been Carl and Sven Ingemarson, had they remained in the
peasant class, instead of Carl and Sven Tiliander.

The daughter married a farmer, Ingemar Bengtson ; and her son's name
was Nils Ingemarson, until he entered the "gymnasium." He also was
born in Jonsboda, and, when selecting a name, he also naturally turned to
the same old linden-tree as his maternal uncles had done. He called him-
self Linnaeus. It is remarkable that two of his father's maternal grand-
uncles also bore anotlicr Latin form of the same name, viz., Lindelius.
Some claim that even this name was derived from the same old linden-tree,
but this is scarcelv in accordance with the facts. More likelv it traces its
origin from the Linden Farm in Dannas Parish, where their ancestors lived.

But what has this genealogy to do with Linnaeus's relation to North
American botany? Perhaps nothing directly, but indirectly a great deal;
for the circumstances and surroundings under which a man is born and
reared to a certain extent make the man. In his younger days, Sven
Tiliander was the house-chaplain of Field-Marshal and Admiral- Viscount
Henrik Horn, who was for many years Governor of Bremen and Verden,
two cities with territory in Germany acquired by Sweden through the
Thirty-years War. During his stay in Germany, Tiliander learned to know
and love botany and horticulture, and established around Viscount Horn's
residence in Bremen a garden which was remarkable for that period. When
both returned to Sweden, Tiliander brought with him the choicest plants
from this garden and planted them around the parsonage of Pjetteryd
Parish, of which he had been appointed rector. Here at Pjetteryd, Nils
Linnaeus spent most of his youth, studying in company with his uncle's
sons. Later, both as curate at RSshult and as rector at Stenbrohult, he

34 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

surrounded the parsonages with gardens in which he grew many rare and
interesting plants. In the midst of these, Carl Linnaeus, the famous botanist,
was born and reared. Later, while a student at the university, he spent a
summer vacation at home in 1732, and made a list of the plants in his
father's garden. This list is still to be seen in the Academy of Science at
Stockholm. Although defective, the first four classes being unrepresented,
it enumerates 224 species. Of these, many were at that time very rare in
cultivation. Professor Theodore Fries in his biography of Linnaeus enumer-
ates 36 of the rarest of these. Among them we notice six American plants,
viz., Rhus Toxicodendron, the poison oak, Mirahilis Jalapa, four-o-clock,
Asclepias syriaca, milkweed, Phytolacca decandra, pokeweed, Anteniiaria
(now Anaphalis) margaritacea, pearly everlasting, and Solanam tuberosum,
the potato. It may be remarked that the cultivation of potatoes was
introduced into Sweden about twenty years later. We see from this that
Linnaeus had learned to know some American plants even in his early
childhood.

Carl Linnaeus was born the 13th of May, O.S., 1707, at Rashult, an
annex to the parish of Stenbrohult. His father was the curate there; but
two years later, at the death of his father-in-law, Samuel Broderson, he
became rector and moved to Stenbrohult. In the fall of 1714, Carl Lin-
naeus entered the school of Wexio, and graduated from the "gymnasium"
in 1727. His parents, especially his mother, wanted him to study for the
ministry; but he had no love for theology, nor for metaphysics, nor the
classics. He learned Latin tolerably, however, because that language
helped him to study the natural sciences. He decided to study medicine,
and entered with that view the University of Lund, which was nearest his
home, but remained there only one year, learning that there were better
facilities at Upsala. At the latter place he soon became acquainted with
Professors Rudbeck and Celsius, two of the most prominent scientists of
that time, and was allowed to use their libraries. The former, who had
many duties to perform, soon asked Linnaeus to give for him the public
lectures in botany. The income from these gave Linnaeus means to sup-
port himself, and linked him closer to his favorite study. He became
acquainted with practically all the plants of the gardens and fields of the
whole region around Upsala, and learned all the scientific names given in the
books at his disposal.

The latter was not an easy matter when we take into consideration the
form of scientific names at that period. For example, the most approved
name of the common blue-grass that adorns our lawns was, "Gramen
pratense paniculatum majus, latiore folio, Poa Theophrasti." Other names
of the same grass were, "Gramen vulgo cog7iitum," "Gramen prafen,se

BICENTENARY OF LINNAEUS 35

majus vulgatus," and "Gramen alterum et vulgare." In the first publication
by Linnaeus, it appears as " Poa spiculis ovatis compressis muticis." I
think that Linnseus and his contemporaries had much more cause than
we to exclaim, "Those horrible Latin names!" To us the same plant is
known as Poa pratensis L., the name adopted by Linnseus in his "Species
Plantarum."

The lectures given by Linnaeus for Professor Rudbeck became very
popular. This was especially the case after his return from his Lapland
journey. Some persons, especially Dr. Nils Rosen, became jealous of his
success, and induced the university faculty to pass a resolution by which no
one who had not taken the corresponding degree was permitted to give
university lectures. Linnseus had not yet received his doctor's degree, and
hence was debarred. As Holland was offering at that time excellent facilities
both in medicine and in botany, and as living expenses were lower there than
elsewhere, Linnseus decided to visit that country and take his examinations
there. He received his doctor's diploma at Harderwijk, and afterwards
went to Leyden, where he became acquainted with three of the greatest
botanists of the time, Boerhaave, Burmann and Gronovius. George
Cliffort, the wealthy burgomaster of Amsterdam and president of the East
India Company, was a great lover of plants, and had a splendid botanical
garden at Hartecamp as well as a rich library and herbarium. On the
recommendation of Boerhaave, Linnseus became Cliffort's physician, and
curator of his collections and garden. Here he lived in luxury, beloved as
a son.

Cliffort furnished Linnseus with means to publish five of his first books,
"Systema Naturse," "Fundamenta Botanica," "Bibliotheca Botanica,"
"Genera Plantarum" and "Flora Lapponica," the manuscript of which he
had brought with him from Sweden. In the first of these, Linnseus presents
his system of classification. He divides Nature into three kingdoms,— the
mineral, vegetable and animal. In the vegetable kingdom he brings out
an altogether new classification, based upon the sexual organs of plants.
He divides the kingdom into 24 classes, the first 23 containing the phan-
erogams, and the last the cryptogams. In the first 11 classes are included
plants which have from 1 to 12 free and practically equal stamens; in the
12th and the 13th, plants with many stamens; in the 14th and 15th, plants
with 4 and 6 stamens respectively, of which 2 are decidedly shorter. In the
16th, 17th and 18th classes the stamens are united by their filaments, in
the 19th they are united by their anthers, and in the 20th they are adnate to
the pistil. In the 21st and 22d the flowers are unisexual, i.e., the stamens
and pistils are in different flowers (on the same individual in the 21st and on
different individuals in the 22d) ; and the plants of the 23d class have both

36 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

unisexual and bisexual flowers. The classes were divided into orders.
In the first 13 classes the orders were determined by the number of the
pistils; in the 14th and 15th, by the fruit; and in the 16th to 18th and 20th
to 23d, by the number and distinctness or union of the stamens. The classi-
fication of the 19th class is too complex to enter into here. The 24th class
was divided into four orders: Filices, Musci, Algae and Fungi.

This system of classification is purely artificial. Linnseus himself re-
garded it only as temporary, and expected that it would soon be supplanted
by a more rational one, based on natural relationship. The Linnaean
system served its purpose, however. It became a means by which it was
possible to tabulate every known genus of plants. Before this time there
had been no systems at all, or such crude ones as we find even to-day in
some popular flower-books, where the plants are classified by the color of
their flowers. If the natural systems of DeCandolle, Bentham and Hooker,
and Engler and Prantl, are too complicated for popular books, why not go
back to the simple system of Linnaeus ? It would at least give a good insight
into the structure of the flower instead of the mere color.

In his "Genera Plantarum," Linnseus applied this system to all known
genera of plants, and gave each of them a concise and plain description.

Cliffort had many American plants in his garden, but he sent Linnaeus
to England to visit Sir Hans Sloane, Professor Dillenius and Philip Miller,
in order to secure American plants grown by them. Both Sloane and
Dillenius treated Linnaeus at first with coolness, because he "confounded
botany." On his farewell visit to Dillenius, Linnaeus politely asked him
what he meant by "confounding botany." Dillenius took from the library
the first few pages of Linnseus's own "Genera Plantarum," and showed him
where there was written at numerous places "NB." Dillenius stated that
all the genera so marked were wrongly described. The first example he
pointed out, if I am not mistaken, was Canna, placed by Linnaeus in his first
class, which contains plants with but one stamen. Botanists before this
time had described it as having three stamens. To settle the dispute they
went out into the garden, and the living plant showed that Linnaeus was
correct. Dillenius then retained Linnaeus for several days, and found that
the older botanists in most cases were at fault and the young Swede correct.
From being an opponent, he became a friend, of Linnaeus and let him have
all the plants he wanted.

After his return to Holland, Linnaeus continued his work in Clifi'ort's
garden with renewed zeal, and completed his "Hortus Cliffortianus," a
large folio, in which are enumerated and described all the plants found in
Cliffort's collections, together with synonyms and citations of nearly all
botanical works then in existence. In preparing this work he became

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 37

thoroughly acquainted with almost all the literature referring to American
botany, such as Morison's "Plantarum Historia," Plukcnett's "Almagestrum
Botanicum" and " Phytographia," Petiver's " Gazophylacium," Sloane's
"Jamaica," Plumier's "Plantarum x\mericanarum Genera," "Plantarum
Americanarum Fasciculus Primus" and "Filicetum Americanum," Catesby's
"Historia Naturalis," and, later, Cornuti's "Canadensium Plantarum
Historia."

After completing the "Hortus Cliffortianus," Linnaeus returned to
Leyden, where he spent some time helping Gronovius with the editing of
his "Flora Virginica," based on a large collection of plants collected by
Cla\1;on. Here again he came in contact with American plants.

Linnaeus then returned to Sweden and became a practicing physician.
He was soon appointed professor of medicine at Upsala, but by common
agreement he exchanged chairs with Rosen, who held the professorship of
botany. He now began work upon the most important book of his life,
his "Species Plantarum." In this he tried to include a short description of
every known species of plant, together with the most important synonyms
and citations. In this book the Linnsean binomial system of nomenclature
was used for the first time. Linnaeus was not the first to give plants names,
nor was he the first to name genera. Many Latin plant-names had come
down from antiquity, while others had been proposed by his predecessors.
Men like Tournefort and Micheli had in some cases clearer ideas of genera
than Linnaeus himself. Neither was Linnaeus the first one to use binomials.
In Cornuti's work on Canadian plants, for example, we find almost as many
binomials as polynomials; but it is doubtful if Linnaeus had seen Cornuti's
book when he first wrote his "Species Plantarum." He does not cite it in
the first edition, but does so in the second. Linnaeus was, however, the first
one to use binomials systematically and consistently. Before his time,
botanists had recognized genera, and applied to them Latin nouns as names.
In order to designate species, they added to these nouns adjective descriptive
phrases. These consisted sometimes of a single adjective, as in Quercus
alba, the white oak, but more often of a long string of adjectives and adjective
modifiers, as in the case of the blue-grass mentioned above. The specific
name had hitherto been merely a description modifying the generic name;
from this time it became really a name, although a single adjective in form.
An illustration of the pre-Linnaean form of plant-names might be had if,
instead of "Grace Darling," one should say, "Mr. Darling's beautiful,
slender, graceful, blue-eyed girl with long golden curls and rosy cheeks."
"Grace" is just as descriptive of the girl as this whole string of adjectives.
It may be that "Grace" is not always applicable to the person to whom the
name is applied; but this is also often the case with many specific plant-

38 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

names. Asclepias syriaca and Rumex Brittanica are American plants, and
Rubus deliciosus is one of the least delicious of the raspberry tribe. This
invention and strict application of binomial names could not but cause
a revolution in botany. Since the appearance of "Species Plantarum" in
1753, it has been possible to pigeon-hole not only genera, but also species, of
plants.

Before this useful book was printed, Linnaeus had become better ac-
quainted with North American plants, and in another way. Baron Bjelke,
the vice-president of the Court of Appeals of Finland, had proposed to the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm to send an able man to Iceland
and Siberia, countries partly in the same latitude as Sweden, "to make
observations, and such collections of seeds and plants as would improve the
Swedish husbandry, gardening, manufactures, arts and sciences." Dr.
Linnaeus suggested .North America instead, and recommended one of his
pupils. Professor Pehr Kalm of Abo, for the proposed expedition. Kalm
spent two years in North America, traveling through Pennsylvania, New
Jersey, New York and Canada, and making large collections of seeds and
plants, which were preserved as living or dried specimens, or as alcoholic
material. During his stay at Raccoon, N.J., he discovered our mountain-
laurel. The Swedes of Raccoon called it spoon-tree, because the Indians
made spoons from its hard wood. Kalm adds in his journal, about this
tree, "The English call this tree a laurel, because its leaves resemble
those of the Laurocerasus. Linnaeus, conformably to the peculiar friend-
ship and goodness which he has honored me with, has pleased to call this
tree Kalmia joliis ovalis, corymbis terminalibus, or Kalviia latifolia." Here
Linnaeus himself gave an illustration of both the pre-Linnaean and the post-
Linnaean nomenclature. Kalm became acquainted with several of the
naturalists of this country, C. Colden and his daughter Jane, Bartram and
Clayton, and through Kalm a correspondence was established between
them and Linnaeus. Linnaeus also corresponded with John Ellis, who
resided in the West Indies, and Dr. Gardiner, who botanized in Carolina
and Florida. Later he bought a set of plants collected by Patrick Browne
in Jamaica, and received a part of the collections made by Jacquin in the
West Indies.

When the second edition of the "Species Plantarum" appeared, in 1762,
Linnaeus knew and had described nearly 1000 plants indigenous to the
Unite'd States and Canada. Besides these, he described about 1000 more,
natives of the West Indies, Mexico and Central America, and 400 or 500
South American plants. His knowledge of American plants was small
compared with what he knew of plants of the Old World. "Codex Lin-
nseanus," which enumerates all plants named by Linnaeus, contains not
fewer than 8551 species.

BICENTENARY OF LINN.EUS 39

Linnseus died Jan. 10, 1778, honored and esteemed by all. Some of
his work will doubtless live as long as botany is studied by man.

We see from the preceding account that we may consider Linnseus one
of our American botanists. Even the little plant which Gronovius dedicated
to the Father of Botany, the twin-flower of our woods, with its exquisite
perfume and its dainty pink flowers, belongs to a genus essentially North
American. The genus Linnoea contains four forms, all closely related. One
of these, the original Linnoea borealis, is confined to the mountain regions
of northern and central Europe. Linnseus discovered it on his Lapland
journey, and it was then considered a very rare plant. Now it seems to be
more widely distributed than it was at the time of Linnseus. Perhaps it is
of American origin, and has become modified since it transplanted itself on
the other side of the ocean. The other three forms are North American.
Linnooa americana Forbes, which has usually been confounded with its
European cousin, is common in the woods from Labrador to Alaska, and
extends in the Rocky Mountains as far south as New Mexico. L. longiflora
(Torr.) Howell, is found in the mountains from northern California to
Alaska. The fourth form is, as far as I know, undescribed and unnamed.
It is with great pleasure that I here propose the following name and descrip-
tion for this species.

Linnsa serpyUifolia sp. nov.

A delicate plant with long creeping stems, 1-4 dm. long, sparingly hirsute;
petioles 2-3 mm. long, ciliate; blades broadly oval or round-ovate, 5-8 mm.
long, minutely crenulate, obtuse, sparingly hirsute, more or less coriaceous
and shining, slightly paler beneath; peduncles 3-5 cm. long, sparingly
pubescent and more or less glandular above, 2-flowered; bracts 2-3 mm.
long, linear or lance-linear, obtuse; pedicels 5-8 mm. long, glandular-
pubescent; hypanthium subglobose, in flower slightly over 1 mm. long,
glandular-puberulent, purplish; calyx-lobes 2-2.5 mm. long, linear-subulate;
corolla pink, open-funnelform with a very short tube, decidedly oblique,
about 6 mm. long and 5 mm. wide.

This species differs from L. borealis and L. americana in the very narrow
and almost glabrous calyx-lobes. In this respect, it agrees with L. longi-
flora; but it is distinguished from that species by the differently shaped
corolla and by the leaves, which are broadest at or below the middle, instead
of above it. It differs from all three in the smaller size of the flower and of
the leaves, and in the indistinct toothing of the latter.

Alaska: Cape Nome, 1900, F. E. Blaisdell (Type in herb. N.Y. Bot.
Gard,); Kotzebue Sound, .4nioif,

40 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Apparently the same plant has also been collected on the Island of
Sachalin by F. Schmidt, but his specimens lack flowers.

After Dr. Rydberg's address, Professor H. H. Rusby gave an exhibition
of selected lantern slides of flowers of North American plants known to
Linnaeus, and then Dr. W. A. Murrill led the party southward from the
Museum building, through the Garden, to the Linnseus Bridge, pointing out
on the way the following characteristic American trees known to Linnseus.
Tulip-tree White ash White elm

Sweet-gum Sugarberry Red oak

Red maple Flowering dogwood White oak

Red cedar Sassafras Hemlock

Sweet birch Buttonwood Chestnut-oak

White pine Butternut American linden

At the Linnseus Bridge over the Bronx River, on Pelham Parkway,
Professor N. L. Britton, President of the New York Academy of Sciences,
unveiled the bronze tablet commemorative of Linnseus which had been
placed there by the Academy with the consent of the Department of Parks
of the city of New York, and made the following address.

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE ACADEMY.

N. L. Britton, Ph. D.

Director-in-chief, New York Botanical Garden.

The recognition of the work of famous men is one of the happiest duties
of mankind. It stimulates our endeavors and encourages us to make efforts
which we would probably not make without their examples before us.

To-day we do homage to a distinguished man of science, and the una-
nimity with which the scientific societies and institutions of the city of
New York join in this tribute is in itself evidence of the value which is
placed upon his contributions to natural history.

Science has made great progress during the two centuries which have
elapsed since the birth of Linmeus. Theories have in large part given
place to ascertained facts, or have been replaced by other theories based
on more accurate knowledge of natural objects and of natural phenomena.
The contributions of science to the welfare, comfort and happiness of
mankind, have made present human life widely different from that of two

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BICENTENARY OF LINNjEUS 41

hundred years ago; and this amelioration of our condition, and the more
general diffusion of knowledge, have been accompanied by a vast improve-
ment in morality.

The ceremonies of to-day are worthy of the great naturalist whose birth
they commemorate. Societies and institutions all over the world join with
us in honoring him, and are represented here by delegates, or have trans-
mitted documents expressing their appreciation of his life and labors. The
public natural science institutions of New York have come to take leading
parts in the subjects they teach and illustrate. Public and private philan-
thropy have developed them with a rapidity almost phenomenal, for they
are all yet in their infancy and on a scale commensurate with the dignity of
the metropolis of America. The cordial co-operation of a municipality with
public-spirited citizens to build and maintain such institutions for the
welfare of the people and of science, finds here in New York its maximum
evolution, which has as yet, however, by no means reached its complete
development or its maximum usefulness. What will be said of their posi-
tion and importance when after fifty years the New York Historical Society
opens the tablet which we now place upon this bridge ? And what discov-
eries will science have made for the benefit of the human race during this
next fifty years ?

The selection of this bridge, recently constructed by the Park Depart-
ment, as a permanent memorial of Linnseus, is most appropriate. It is
situated just outside the New York Zoological Park, with the New York
Botanical Garden a short distance to the north, being thus between the two
institutions which teach the subjects on which the fame of Linnseus chiefly
rests. The suggestion that it be known hereafter as the Linnaean Bridge
came from the Director of the American Museum of Natural History.

On behalf of the New York Academy of Sciences I now unveil this
tablet, and present it to the city of New York, there having been placed
in it copies of to-day's program and other documents befitting the occa-
sion.

After Wennerberg's song, rendered by the American Union of Swedish
Singers, "Hear us, Svea," Hon. Joseph I. Berry, Commissioner of Parks of
the Borough of the Bronx, in a few fitting words accepted the tablet on
behalf of the city of New York, and then delivered the key of the box
within the tablet to the New York Historical Society, for preservation till
Mav 23, 1957. These ceremonies were followed by the singing, by the
chorus, of Lindblad's "Battle Hymn," and then the audience listened to
the following two addresses.

42 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE AMERICAN SCENIC
AND HISTORIC PRESERVATION SOCIETY.

George F. Kunz, Ph. D.

Linnasus was a great scientist, and the conquests of science have done
more to advance the world than wars, which science may yet render im-
possible. It was thirty years of scientific research in Germany that gave
us artificial indigo. It was pure scientific research that led Moissan, Cowles
and Acheson to discover independently an abrasive substance of a hardness
between the diamond and the sapphire; and then Moissan by scientific
deduction worked out the genesis of the hardest and most fearless of gems,
which, though obtained only in the form of powder, was still the diamond.
Within the past quarter of a century we have seen air, oxygen and hydrogen
liquefied, giving us temperatures absolutely unknown in nature before, and
also the electric furnace, giving an extreme heat such as has perhaps never
existed, unless it be on the surface of the sun.

Jade, the Chinese stone, has been known in China for more than a
thousand years. Some believe that it was known to a prehistoric race the
existence of which was almost unknown to the Chinese, and whose only
records extant are found as we find the evidences left of the mound-builders,
who passed away before the advent of the white man in North America. It
was not until 1866 that Damour, a scientist, separated jade into two distinct
minerals, nephrite and jadeite; and one of those into two varieties, jadeite
and chloromelanite — facts unknown to the Chinese, though they apparently
knew and understood every tiny fragment they had ever seen of this mineral.
It was the scientist who took three red stones belonging to the King of
Burmah or to the Emperor of China, and proved to him that one was a
ruby, one was a spinel, and the third a tourmaline, and not all rubies, as
they had been regarded for a century or more previously.

Moses was the first great systematizer, and his original assemblage of
the people in tens, hundreds and thousands, is carried out in the military
systems of to-day, and is again reflected in our own and in the monetary
systems of many of the European nations, and more especially in that indis-
pensable and scientific international system of weights and measures, the
metric system. It was Alexander who conquered the eastern world, bring-
ing back with him much refinement, and possibly also the valuable and
industrious silkworm ; and it was he also who discovered that the carrying
powers of his camels were doubled if he employed a gold medium of exchange
instead of silver. Csesar, in his attempt to conquer the world, did much

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 43

toward the dissemination of education and civilization, from which Rome
greatly benefited.

Napoleon upturned and readjusted the treasuries of a number of king-
doms, duchies, cloisters and churches in Europe; and, even though his
regime was attended by frightful loss of life, marked and permanent improve-
ment has followed it. But it was La Sage, a scientist, who compiled a
great work for Napoleon, from which he learned what noble families had
lived in all times, and what campaigns had been fought by the various
conquerors; and it was a thorough study of La Sage's work that had much
to do with giving Napoleon an idea as to what worlds others had conquered,
and what parts of this world were left for him to subdue.

It may not be generally known that it was one of our New York scientists,
Dr. Melvil Dewey, w^io introduced the card catalogue system of catalo-
guing books, which led to the present system of keeping books by the loose-
leaf system.

It would be easy to mention many who have materially assisted in the
advancement and organization of the multifarious affairs of mankind; but
the other and lower creations of nature outnumbered mankind many thou-
sand times, and the co-ordination of scientific nomenclature covering this
vast domain is due to the great Carl von Linne. Until his time, an animal
was known as a deer in English, a Hirsh in German, a cerf in French, and by
fifty other names in as many different languages. By applying two or three
words as a name to every creature that flies in the heavens above, that dwells
in the earth beneath or in the waters under the earth, he made it possible
for the scientist, whether at the Cape of Good Hope, in Greenland, in New
York, or in the Sandwich Islands, to know not only just what living form
was referred to, but also to understand immediately to just what genus,
class, species or variety, this living organism belongs.

The Linnaean system has also greatly aided scientific classification in
natural history, which, in connection with medicine, has given us the con-
necting link in the science of biology and bacteriology. The Linnaean
system compares with the natural history of to-day as alchemy does with
chemistry, as astrology and fortune-telling with astronomy and medicine of
the present time.

It is strange that, as well-planned and admirable and successful as the
Linnfean system is when applied to the nomenclature of animate objects,
it was absolutely rejected by the then mineralogists and chemists, as the
chemical equivalents and the structure are frequently better expressed by a
single term than they would be by a binominal system.

Had a Linnaean system existed when Adam and Eve were in the Garden
of Eden, there would be no dispute to-day as to whether the "apple" which

44 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

caused their expulsion from the Garden was the identical kind of apple
that has caused so many boys to be driven from gardens and orchards
wherein they trespass to-day, or whether it was a pomegranate, an orange,
a lemon, or some other fruit of which we have no knowledge. If Noah had
known a Linnsean system when he took his animals into the ark, and had
so named them, how helpful that would be to us to-day ! There would not
be the doubt in the minds of the few who still maintain that evidences of
the flood are to be found in fossil remains, since these would belong to those
animals that were destroyed at the time of the great flood.

We have recorded a history of the past, to-day we have heard much of
Linnaeus and his time: let us speak now of the present. For a quarter of a
century it has been our pleasure to know one of the most ardent disciples of
Linnaeus that has lived in our land ; and had it not been for his untiring zeal,
his keen judgment, his constant application, it is a question whether we
would be assembled to-day to dedicate this bridge to the memory of Linnaeus.
We remember twenty-five years ago when he first appeared before the
Academy of Sciences, and it is almost that long ago that he first suggested
a botanical garden. The Botanical Garden undoubtedly influenced the
Zoological Park, and each successive scientific institution has strengthened
the others, so that, as science stands united to-day. New York is perhaps
and will long remain one of the leading scientific cities in the country, if not
the foremost; and no one more than our esteemed President of the New
York Academy of Sciences, and Director of the Botanical Garden, Dr. N.
L. Britton, has assisted in the unification and the advancement of our greatest
Academy of Sciences. Dr. Britton was the pioneer with the Botanical
Garden. Professor Henry Fairfield Osborn, another disciple of Linnaeus,
was the pioneer in the Zoological Park, which has been so ably conducted
and carried on through that indefatigable worker, Dr. W. T. Hornaday,
who brought to his task a world-wide experience of animals, their habitats
and their characters. Therefore it seems eminently fitting that this bridge
should form a connecting link between these two Siamese Twins, as it were,
of botany and zoology in the United States.

It is science that gives us this well-ordered Bronx Botanical Garden,
which, beautiful as it is, is a living botanical exposition, made possible
through the organization of Linnaeus, the energy, industry and intelligence
of a Britton, the generosity of the founders and its trustees and the encour-
agement of our great city of New York.

Although historic sites and buildings may be marked with tablets or with
monuments of stones, yet it was Nero who removed the Greek inscription,
and placed his own, over the architrave of the Parthenon. In 1881 we were
surprised to see some stone-cutters removing from within the laurel wreaths

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 45

on the arches of the bridge across the River Seine the raised letter N placed
there by Napoleon III, and a few days later to see them incise the letters
R. F. (R6publique Fran9aise) where the N had formerly been.

The value of preserving historic sites or commemorating historic events
by indestructible means, such as medals or engraving in stone or metal,
has always served as a great benefit to those who were to follow. A simple
tablet on the summit of the Jura Mountains tells one when, where and how
the great Napoleon crossed those mountains. A tablet in Russia relates
that Napoleon entered Russia at this point with seven hundred and twenty
thousand men, and less than a year later returned with an army of only a
hundred and twenty thousand, having lost six hundred thousand.

The use of metal and baked tiles for the perpetuation of portraits and
historic events forms one of the most feasible and enduring means. It is
due to the coins and the medals that have been struck since about the
seventh century B.C. that we have an almost unbroken line, for the past
twenty-four centuries, of portraits and history; and to Assyrian baked
tablets, that wc have some four thousand years of history recorded.

There should be a most stringent law, a national law, rigidly enforced,
for the punishment of any vandal who destroys, either wantonly or for the
purpose of loot, any monument, as, for instance, the Andr^ Monument on
the banks of the Hudson and the tablet marking the Slocum disaster.

It is the honor and pleasure of the American Scenic and Historic Preser-
vation Society to take part in this historic event, and it is its official function
to describe accurately the event in its Annual Report edited by our able
Secretary, Edward Hagaman Hall, and published by order of the Legislature
of this State. So the record of this event will appear in series with that of
the dedication of Stony Point as a park; the re-dedication of the Andr6
Monument; the preservation of the Palisades; the McGowan's Pass tablet;
more recently the acceptance of the gift of three miles of one of the most
beautiful ravines on the continent, containing three fine waterfalls, presented
to our State by the Honorable William Pryor Letchworth, for which the
Society is to act as a Trustee ; and the State's acquisition of Watkins Glen.

46 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ADDRESS BY THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED SWEDISH

SOCIETIES OF NEW YORK.

Emil F. Johnson.

I do not intend to encroach upon your time by attempting to make a
long speech, but I consider it my duty as president of the United Swedish
Societies to express to you, Mr. President, and to the members of the New
York Academy of Sciences, our gratitude for the opj)ortunity you have
given us to take part in honoring the memory of our distinguished country-
man Linnseus, whom we are used to call the "Flower King of the North."
To be sure, our participation in this celebration is limited to the assistance
given by our singing societies and to the presence of a goodly number of our
people in the park. The Swedish minister to Washington, Mr. Lagercrantz,
is also with us, and I take this opportunity to convey to you. Your Excellency,
our appreciation of the interest you have shown by coming to New York
to-day. Our consul and vice-consul are also with us.

I saw a statement in a paper a few days ago to the effect that Swedes
in New York have presented this beautiful bridge to the city. I only wish
that such were the case ; but unfortunately we are only about fifty thousand
strong in this neighborhood. Such a gift might well be possible out West,
where, as you know, most of the Swedish immigrants settle, but not here.
Indeed, there are parts of the West and Northwest, where for miles upon
miles you will find Swedish settlements almost exclusively, and all in pros-
perous condition. In Chicago the Swedes have even erected a statue to
the memory of Linnseus, a duplicate of one erected in Stockholm just twenty
years ago to-day. I remember the date well, because I took part in the
celebration, being a student in Stockholm at the time.

It is a great satisfaction to us Swedes, that Linnaeus, whose memory' is
to-day honored all over the globe, was a man of peace. Every one has heard
of our Gustavus Adolphus and Charles XII, not to mention the old vikings ;
but our great scientific men — such as Linnseus, Berzelius, Scheele, Celsius,
Edlund, Rudbeck and others — are kno'wn only to a select few. Even John
Ericsson the great engineer, whose statue has been erected in Battery Park
by the city of New York, is remembered and honored only on account of
his ship of war, the "Monitor." The fact that he invented the fire-engine,
the propeller, the solar engine, the hot-air engine and other wonderful
machinery, is well-nigh forgotten, though we have in the city to-day about
fifteen thousand pumping engines run with heated air on Ericsson's prin-
ciples, and the solar engine is being used more and more in California.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 47

His work was work of peace of the very highest character, and to be com-
mended as such.

There is one part of Linnseus's life-work which may not have been
referred to to-day, and that is his work as an archeologist. While pursuing
his studies in botany and zoology, Linnaeus naturally traveled a great deal
around the country; in doing this, he made careful notes of the mounds,
runestones and other marks left by the ancient inhabitants, which marks are
very abundant all over Sweden. In fact, his writings on this subject have
formed a basis for the very interesting archeology of Sweden. Personally,
I have derived much more pleasure from this part of Linnseus's writings
than I have from the others, although once upon a time I did know the Latin
names of a few hundred plants. Once more I thank you, Mr. President, in
behalf of the Swedes of New York, and I will close by proposing a cheer for
the memory of Linnaeus, and will ask the singers to assist me with a gen-
uine Swedish hurrah.

At the close of the exercises at the Bridge, many people, in spite of the
lateness of the hour, walked through the New York Zoological Park to note
American animals known to Linnaeus. The party was under the guidance
of Director Hornaday and Messrs. Ditmars, Beebe and Blair.

In the evening the literary exercises of the day were continued at the
Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, Eastern Parkway,
Brooklyn. After brief opening remarks by Mr. F. A. Lucas, Director of
the Museum, the following address was read.

A SKETCH OF THE LIFE OF CARL VON LINNfi.
By Edward L. Morris.

There is something of human interest in the personal side of any one's
life, if we but know an avenue of approach. Such avenues are closed to
most of us for most lives. The public careers of great men are matters of
recorded or current history'. The professional activities and writing of men
of science are open to those interested along similar lines; but often there
is little opportunity to know the personal and characteristic things which
are the real foundation and basis of success among men.

Our presiding officer has elsewhere said, "In some ways the career of
Linnaeus reminds one of a good old-fashioned fairy story in which the hero
continually is being provided for. Time after time, Linnaeus was taken up

48 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

by some man of wealth who practically supported him and gave him oppor-
tunities for study and research.

"Either genius was rarer in those days than now, or else it received more
substantial recognition."

In 1706, Nils Linnaeus, a Swedish pastor, and his bride Christina, began
their home life in his parish in RSshult in SmSland in southern Sweden.
About their cottage he had planted a garden of flowers according to a taste
developed while living with an uncle. In this garden the young bride took
special delight, only to grieve sorely at the effects of the heavy winter frosts,
but reacting to the hope and anticipation of the awakening of spring. Here
were more than four hundred species of exotic plants. For such a latitude
and for such a period of the world's history, this was a most unusual col-
lection.

In the midst of the spring advent of the flovvers, in iSIay, 1707, there was
bom a son in the home of the parish leader. He was baptized "Carl."
To-day we celebrate, in honor and praise, the birth of Carl Linnoeus.

The follovv'ing year, the family moved to Stenbrohult, to which were also
removed most of the plants from the garden at Rashult.

As soon as the boy Carl could walk, he daily visited the new garden with
his father, where he was the more attracted to the flowers because in his
babyhood the parents had often attracted his attention by many bright
blossoms. A little later be had a bed for his own flowers, which he chose
from the main garden. Later still, he was given a plot for his own garden
beside his father's. At four years of age, after a visit to a country fair, he
so persisted in asking questions that he practically knew all his father could
tell him, — the Swedish names and the uses of the native plants.

Typically, his mother delighted in the boy's absorption in the flowers
(she was fond of them too), besides, this often kept the boy occupied for
hours, — an important item in the daily program of the young housekeeping
mother.

Boylike, oftener than not Carl forgot the answers to his questions. His
father noticed this and called the habit mischievous, and refused to answer
further questions till the boy promised to remember what was told him.
This parental training became of the highest value to the future Linnaeus.

Many of the relatives of Nils Linnteus were ordained to the service of the
church. It was in the wife's heart to have their son be the same. But
he was averse to all reading not related to natural history or more particu-
larly to botany. His chief activity was to wander over the fields and
through the woods, bring home every new species he found, plant some,
and dry and preserve others. With these he brought in several weeds,
which caused no end of trouble to his father, as they spread to the beds of

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 49

exotic plants. He became so proficient in his knowledge of the local plants
that the neighbors all called him "the little Botanicus."

The story goes, that one day his mother found that he had even appro-
priated her much-treasured Bible in which to press some new-found flowers,
and she began gently rating him for this.

"Dear child," she said, "you must not put herbs and flowers in my
beautiful book. It would be quite a sin to spoil the Holy Bible."

"Pray forgive me, mother! But these are the most beautiful flowers I
have ever seen, so I thought I would preserve them best of all, for I have
heard both you and father say that the Bible is the Book of Life; and
surely, if I put the flowers between its leaves, they will retain their color,
the Bible keeping them alive forever."

"Child, v/hen we call the Bible the Book of Life, we mean by that, not
the life we see before us, but the spiritual growth of our souls, for ever}-
thought we think is a flower culled in the garden of our soul. There, as
on earth, grow many various plants, some of Avondrous beauty, and others
stained with sin. But every time we humbly read in the Sacred Writ, a seed
is sown in our heart, which some day will bloom, and bear holy fruit."

"How beautifully you talk, mother! "

"Well, you must diligently read your Bible, and in your heart will grow
the seed of goodness and humility; but I fear" —

"What do you fear, mother?"

"I fear you love the fair flowers of the earth too much to care for the seeds
that were watered with tears in the Garden of Gethsemane."

"O mother! no, I won't forget my Bible. But when I see a flower
I think this way, ' Why does God make the cold, damp earth grow such
lovely creatures with such beautiful colors ? Why, if not to make us happy
with the sight?' And then I almost fancy the flowers saying with their
petal lips, 'Look at us, and think how kind and good is God.' O mother!
every flower must have been a thought by God."

"Why, how you speak, child! W^ell, yes, you are right: it must be so."

When Carl was ten years old, after an unfortunate experience with a
private tutor, he was sent to Wexio, the capital of the diocese, to the grammar
and higher grades. But here he failed because there was no teacher to lead
and inspire him, but only those to drive. The boy mentally refused to be
driven. Shortly he v/as put again under a tutor somewhat better than the
former one; but in every subject except Nature he was considered a dunce.

In eight years his father, with sorrow in his heart, became convinced that
Carl never would make a preacher. His mother, realizing this also, rued
the love she had felt for the flowers and the interest on his part which she
sadly had fostered, and with pique declared to her second son, Samuel, that
he never should devote himself to so useless and wasteful a study as flowers.

50 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

In the words of another, "In this great distress, Pastor Linnaeus called
upon a friend Dr. Rothman, a physician of Wexio who also taught physiol-
ogy and botany in the school. His verdict, however, was, 'Well, a preacher
Carl certainly never will be, but he might become a famous physician; and
that profession will feed a man as well as the church. Your son is far
advanced in natural history, and, vathout gainsaying, the foremost scholar
in botany. If you v\'ill permit, I will take him into my house : he shall eat
at my table gratis, and I will myself read with him during the year that
remains before he can proceed to a university.' It need not be told how
gladly father and son accepted this generous and well-timed offer."

Carl now removed to Dr. Rothman; and this learned gentleman with
great discernment made it clear to his pi-otege of what great advantage, and
how indispensable, v.ere Latin and Greek for the study of medicine, botany
and natural history.

The dead languages now became endowed with a living new interest,
and instead of Justinius and Cicero, he studied with enthusiasm Pliny's
" Natural History," performing thus a double study at the same time.

Dr. Rothman grew daily more and more attached to his pupil, who
made amazing progress, and whose transcendent genius became more and
more evident. He found great delight in guiding the young naturalist in
his studies, but soon found, with little surprise and no envy, that his pupil
far outstripped himself, for Linnseus could acquire no more from him.

Linnseus must enter the university, and nothing remained but to get the
certificate from the Wexio school. It was framed in very quaint and signifi-
cant words; and it is curious that the trope of a tree, carried all through,
should have been applied to the future of the professor of botany. It read
as follows: "The youths in schools may be likened unto young saplings in a
plantation, where it sometimes happens, although seldom, that young trees,
despite the great care bestowed on them, will not improve by being en-
grafted, but continue like wild untrained stems, and when they are finally
removed ar.d transplanted, they change their wild nature, and become
beautiful trees that bear excellent fruit. In which this respect, and no other,
this youth is now promoted to the University, where, perhaps, he may come
to a clime that will favor his further development." With this recommen-
dation Carl Linnseus went to Lund, the southern university of Sweden, in
1727.

Here Linnseus boarded and lodged at the house of one Strobaeus, who
lectured in the university on natural history', geology, and botany. He was
a man of acknowledged great learning in these sciences, and possessed a
large private collection of stones, shell, biids and dried herbs. At this house
also lived a German student of medicine, Koulas, eight years the senior of

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 51

Linnaeus, who had the use of Strobaeus's library, and who took upon himself
secretly to lend his young friend what books he required in botany. The old
mother of the learned host had observed that a light burned in the small
hours of the night in Linnseus's room, and, fearing fire, told her son, who
quietly one night went up to Linnseus's room to surprise the negligent fellow,
but was himself surprised to find the student in the dead of night busily
comparing the varying opinions of the greatest botanists of his time. This
surprise won the admiration of the teacher and his affection, and he at once
gave Linn8gus the use of his library freely, and the keys to his collections, and,
like Rothman, took the liveliest interest in the gigantic strides of progress.

In 1728, Linnaeus changed to the University of Upsala to study under the
renowned professors Roberg and Rudbeck. Here Linnaeus suffered much
from poverty, often having barely enough food to sustain life. At length,
under dire necessity, he was about to start for home to his father, when he
made a last visit to the garden of the university. Just then there was a
rare exotic plant in bloom. Linnaeus picked the flower, and was sharply
reprimanded by a voice behind him. He explained that it was for a me-
mento of the place, which he was now obliged to leave permanently. This
aroused the interest and question of the dean, as it proved, — Celsius, senior.
A result of this incident was, that Celsius saved Linnaeus to science then and
there by taking him to his own house, giving him new and large opportunities
at the university, tiding over the time of distress, and procuring for him
opportunities as private tutor to some of the students below him.

Here Linnaeus brought out his little thesis developing his sexual system
of grouping plants. From now on, Linnaeus had a constant chain of promo-
tions, spiced, disagreeably now and then, by jealousies wrought against him,
but consisting of the delights of extensive, dangerous and economic travels,
new positions of teaching and lecturing at home and abroad, and finally the
full chair of botany at the University of Upsala.

His greatest and ultimate joy was in the knowledge that his system of
plant relationships became, before his death, the commonly accepted system
of the civilized world.

To his credit be it recorded again, that his system is the foundation of all
modern concepts of the sexual evolution and differentiation, and consequent
relationships, of all knowTi plants and animals, and especially of their nomen-
clature.

His personal and professional interest were so broad as to include special
studies in insects and birds and in general zoology, as time allowed diver-
gence from his life-work in botany. His writings covered the living things
of the Old and New Worlds, and comprised some seventy or more titles.

His personality was of the kind which inspired every pupil coming under

52 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

him to branch out for himself in some line of natural history. His students
became scattered throughout the world.

Up to the last, and as much as his failing health would allow, Linnaeus
kept up a lively and progressive interest in his science.

Finally, tired of life, and forgetful of all honors which had been so keen a
delight to him, he passed beyond peacefully on the 10th of January, 1778.

His works and his name live forever.

At the conclusion of Dr. Morris's address a musical selection was
rendered by the Glee Club of the United Swedish Societies, after which the
following address was delivered.

LINN.EUS AND AMERICAN NATURAL HISTORY.

By Frederic A. Lucas.

I presume that the question first in the minds of many present is, Why
have we met this evening? why should we celebrate the two hundredth
birthday of Linnseus?

In a general way, Linnseus may be said to have systematized the study
of natural history, and arranged its known facts in an orderly manner; but
his special claim to our gratitude is the invention or perfection of what is
called the "binomial system" of nomenclature, that is, the use of the double
name for each species of plant or animal. This may seem a small matter.
In fact, those who ask Why doesn't every animal have a common name ?
might think they had reason to feel an}i;hing but grateful ; but it was really
one of the greatest advances made in natural history. For in science it is not
enough to accumulate facts, they must be set in order, or classified, so as
to be available. In fact, Huxley termed science "classified knovdedge."
Before the day of Linnseus, animals were mainly known by their descriptions
or their vernacular name. The lion, for instance, would be called the
"great tan-colored cat with a mane;" and, in order to indicate what species
were related, it would be necessary to specify them each and all.

As the rising tide of commerce of the eighteenth century brought to
Europe scores of animals previously unknown, the number of recognized
species increased so rapidly that it promised to be a difficult matter to keep
track of them. It was at this time that Linnseus devised the plan of apply-
ing to each animal a general or generic name which should indicate the
immediate group to which the animal belonged, and a special or specific

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 53

name to apply to that particular kind of animal alone. And so binomial
nomenclature was born. It has been claimed that Linnjeus was not the
first to use the binomial system, but, if not, he was certainly the first to
employ it consistently and to frame rules relating to such use. Linn^us
wrote in Latin not as a matter of affectation, but because Latin was the
common language of culture and science, and to this day many naturalists
still write descriptions of new species in Latin, or preface their accounts
with a brief diagnosis in that language. Had he written in Swedish, his
native tongue, his audience would have been a small one, probably limited
to his native land; as it v/as, his works were understood by all the natu-
ralists of the day. Hence his scientific names which w^ere Latin names
are, like a gold coin, current the world over, while the so-called "popular
name" is restricted in its use, and circulates only in the country where it
is coined.

But Linnseus did much more than devise a scheme of nomenclature : he
systematically defined each and every group of plants and animals with
which he dealt, giving their chief characters in a few brief words; and the
small groups, or genera, he combined in large divisions termed "orders."
It matters not that the genera of Linnseus have since been divided and sub-
divided many times, the underlying principle of assigning certain definite
characters to each animal remains the same.

Linnaeus was a born classifier. He was not happy until he had duly set
in order the facts and objects that came under his notice ; and while he did
not, it is true, carry this to the extent of the eccentric Rafinesque, who made
several genera and species of thunder and lightning, he did propose a system
of classification for diseases wherein they were duly assigned to their respec-
tive families and genera.

To many the term "classification " is repellant. It seems to signify some-
thing with which the ordinary man has nothing to do, when really it is some-
thing with which every one is, or should be, concerned ; for classification is
simply arranging things in their proper places, and putting things of a kind
together. And the man who puts his cuffs in one place, his collars in another,
and arranges his shoes in a row on the top shelf of a closet, is a classifier.

The naturalist is confronted by the same problem as a general,— that of
grouping or arranging the various plants or animals so that he may know
where each one is to be found, or where to assign any new form that may
come to light. For an army is not merely a large number of armed men,
it is an orderly assemblage of men so classed and grouped that they can be
handled by one man. And the classification of the animal kingdom, for
example, is very similar to that of an army, and to the same end, — that any
one may put into its proper place each of the thousands of units with which
he has to do.

64 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

And Linneeus marshaled plants and animals as a general marshals his
troops. And just as an army is composed of thousands of individuals, dis-
tinguished as officers and privates, formed into companies, regiments,
brigades and divisions, so the thousands of species composing the animal
kingdom are grouped into genera, families, orders, classes and phyla. In
doing this, Linnaeus instituted many minor reforms; for example, his char-
acters were given in a definite order, and following the diagnosis was the
synonymy, or list of names under which the animal had been described,
and works in which it had been published. He was the first to strip
natural history of its verbiage, and express himself in clear and concise
language, and, had he lived to-day, I doubt not he would have been an
advocate of spelling reform.

And yet, after all, this scheme of nomenclature is but a part of the ser-
vice Linnaeus rendered to natural history. It is not merely that his genius
grasped the fact that nature was order, and that he devised methods for
expressing this order; his zeal in the pursuit of knowledge gave a stimulus
and purpose to the study of natural history that it had never felt before. In
a way, his influence may be said to have been much like that of Agassiz in
the United States, "He imbued [his pupils] with his own intense acquisitive-
ness, reared them in an atmosphere of enthusiasm, trained them to close
and accurate observation, and then despatched them to various parts of the
globe." It was not so much what he knew himself as the enthusiasm he
inspired in others, that made him a power felt throughout the world.

It must ever be borne in mind that nomenclature, or the naming of
plants and animals, is not the end of natural history, but only a means to an
end, — a fact that many of our younger naturalists are prone to overlook.
Too many of them seem to think that the great aim of the naturalist is to
write "new species" after as many names as possible, when, to my mind at
least, the making of new species is the most trivial work of the naturalist.
It is important work, but only a step on the pathway of knowledge. The
real problems are. Why do these species exist? what forces have brought
them into existence ? and what are their relations with one another ?

The man who heard an overture for the first time, after listening a while
turned to his friend with the query. When are they going to stop tuning up,
and commence to play ? So you may wonder why I chose for the title of this
address "Linnaeus and American Natural History." The truth is that
Linnseus is so intimately connected with all natural history, that American
natural history forms but a small part of the whole. And yet Linnaeus was
intimately concerned with the development of American natural history by
his acquaintance with those men of science who were gathering and making
known the fauna and flora of this continent ; and as plants and animals were

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 55

brought to Europe, most of them found their way to Linnaeus, and many
were definitely named by him for the first time. The twelfth edition of the
famous "Systema Naturse" describes 210 mammals, 78 of which are Ameri-
can (including under that term North and South America) ; 790 birds are
noted, of which 260 are American; and 88 of the 124 reptiles are also
American.

We think of Audubon, Baird, Coues and Ridgway as the great American
ornithologists, and they are great; but a glance at the check-list of the
American Ornithologists' Union shows how prominent a part was played by
Linnseus. The list of 1889 gives 729 species and subspecies. No less than
202 of these were named by Linnaeus ; while Audubon, the father of American
ornithology, named but 33. Twenty-five bear the sign-manual of Coues,
and 104 of Ridgway. We must, it is true, remember that a considerable
number of the birds named by Linnseus are species common to Europe and
North America, but, on the other hand, it must also be borne in mind that
many named by Ridgway are what are called subspecies, which were not
recognized in the day of Linnseus.

In the time of Linnseus there were few naturalists in the United States,
but those were active ; and that they approved of his methods is shown by a
letter of Collin to Linnseus, in which he says, "Your system I can tell you
obtains much in America. Mr. Clarion and Dr. Golden at Albany are
complete professors, as is Dr. Mitchell at Urbana, Va." If this seems a
pitifully small number to us, it must be remembered that in those days
naturalists were few in number, and natural objects studied but little; and
twelve years later there were in all England but seven botanists who vv^ere fol-
lowers of the Linnsean methods. Those were the good times when one man
knew the plants and animals of the whole globe. Now a naturalist may
devote his entire time to the study of one small group, and the names of other
plants and animals are often as unfamiliar to him as they are to the average
man.

It is interesting, almost amusing, to see how little an idea Linnseus and
his contemporaries had of the number of the animals in the world, for their
most liberal estimates were very far from the facts. And this lack of knowl-
edge Linnseus realized when he wrote at the eud of his "Systema Naturse,"
"Ea qua scimus sunt pars minima eorum quae ignoramus." Thus Ray in
1693, a short time before Linnseus began his career, estimated that there
were about twenty thousand animals, including insects, in the whole world;
and this was a very liberal estimate, for he actually described less than four
thousand.

Now, Ray was what would be termed to-day a "lumper," and divided
all living things into four great orders, — insects, fishes, birds and beasts.

56 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the last including reptiles. The number of beasts he stated to be a hundred
and fifty, adding his belief that "not many that are of any considerable big-
ness in the known regions of the world have escaped the cognizance of the
curious." The birds he considered might reach as many as five hundred.
Contrast this with the more than twelve thousand species so far described.
The number of insects he considered might possibly reach twenty thousand
species, a long way from Sharp and Walsingham's estimate of two millions,
or Riley's of ten millions. Nowadays this estimate of Ray provokes a
smile, and yet we can find an example of much greater complacency shown
by one of our noted scientific men of much more recent date ; for Dr. Coues
about ISSO thought that few mammals remained to be discovered in North
America. How badly he was mistaken is shown by Dr. Allen's review in
1894, showing that the number of recognized species had more than doubled
in ten years, rising from 181 in 1880 to 369 in 1890; and since then many
more have been described, not merely small creatures that to the ordinarv-
observers are alike, but large animals like bears and mountain-sheep.

It well illustrates the activity displayed by naturalists of that day to say
that by 1758 the number of known mammals and reptiles had increased to
334 and of birds to 790; the figures in the one case being an advance of
a hundi-ed per cent over those of Ray, and in the other of fifty per cent.

How thoroughly the world is being ransacked for new animals, and how
actively naturalists are engaged in their description, may be gathered from
the following figures. Up to 1830, species to the number of 71,598 had
been described, by 1881 the number had risen to 211,553, and by 1896
to 366,000; more than 150,000 species having been described in fifteen
years. And the vast and ever-growing host of living things — the beasts
of the field, the birds of the air, the fishes that are in the water about the
earth, to say nothing of the myriad species of the plant world — are each
and all named in accordance with the method devised by Linnaeus two
centuries ago. Linnaeus builded better than he knew, and his work has
stood the test of time; and the methods he devised for classifying and
naming animals are those in use now. His details may have been faulty,
and the groups he considered as genera may have been divided and sub-
divided, but his plan stands.

Scores of animals known to Linnaeus have been swept out of existence,
and thousands that he never knew have been discovered; but the stimulus
given by him to the study of nature remains unchecked, and to-day in
many countries the members of learned societies have assembled, as we have
gathered here, to do honor to the great Swedish naturalist. Sweden, indeed,
chanced to be the birthplace of this great man, but genius is not fettered
by time and space, belonging rather to all time and to the whole world.

BICENTENARY OF LINNJEUS 57

At the conclusion of Mr. Lucas's address the Glee Club sang a second
selection, and then the evening exercises ended with an exhibition, by means
of stereopticon views, of plants and animals known to Linnaeus, in charge
of Dr. A. J. Grout and Mr. Lucas.

In the Borough of Manhattan the day was rounded out at the New
York Aquarium, Battery Park, where the New York Zoological Society
gave a reception to the Academy and the guests of the occasion. This
function likewise commemorated the centennial anniversary of the erection
of the building and gave the first view of the collections by night. A fea-
ture of the reception was the exhibition of forms of marine life known to
Linnseus.

5j» ?J^ *^ 3|* Jp ^j* 5|i

An important and highly interesting feature of the Linnaeus celebration
lay in the following documents contributed by sister societies in many parts
of the world, and letters written by several of the Honorary Members of
the New York Academy. Each is reproduced here in the language in
which it was sent in.

Kungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien, Stockholm.

It is with great pleasure that the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has
received in these days, from all parts of the world, the most gratifying testi-
monies of the great admiration and esteem in which our first president,
Carl von Linne, is held by all those who love and study nature. Your invi-
tation has also been accepted with great gratitude : it was, however, received
so late that it was impossible to take any measures for participating in your
celebration in such a way as would have been desirable to us. You have
expressed your wishes that we should contribute an official document appre-
ciative of the work of Linne. There is, however, no opportunity now to
prepare such a document, and we must thus confine ourselves to a short
statement elucidating our opinion.

There were many great naturalists before Linne, if we count from Aris-
toteles to Ray and Willughby. There was certainly a great amount of
knowledge, also, concerning animals and plants; but there was no system,
no scientific names or terms. The facts that were known in natural history
before Linn^ were thus heaped without order, or with very little order, like
a pile of bricks and stones at a building-place. Linn6 was the great architect
who made the plan for the erecting of the building, — the system; and he
furnished at the same time the mortar — the nomenclature — for cementing

58 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

together the stones and bricks. It may be admitted that more practical and
more beautiful buildings have been constructed since that time in the scien-
tific world; but he was and he remains the great master, who, with bril-
liant genius and admirable skill, first taught us how to put in order and
systematically arrange the material, and thus make a true science of natu-
ral history. This has also been universally admitted; and the renowned
British naturalist Pennant ^^Tites about this part of Linne's work, "He
hath in all his classes given philosophy a new language; hath invented
apt names, and taught the world a brevity, yet a fullness, of description
unknown to past ages."

Many persons not familiar with Linne's work have believed that Linn6
contented himself with describing the exterior of the objects in nature, and
then named them. Nothing can be more erroneous; that is proved by
the program or the "Methodus" which Linne published even in the first
edition of "Svstema Naturje." This "Methodus" is in its thirtv-eight
short paragraphs the fullest and richest program which any student of
natural history has ever published. Referring to this we may affirm that no
branch whatever of biological study was neglected or underrated by Linn^.
He grasped fully the importance of the study of anatomy, and he advised
his scholars to dissect animals and also to make a frequent use of the magnify-
ing glass. His ardent love of living nature made him an excellent biologist
in the restricted sense of that word.

Even if his greatest works were of a systematic and descriptive nature,
it becomes e\ndent to any one who has only a superficial knowledge of what
Linne has written, that his genius extended with unbounded flight to cover
much wider areas of philosophical speculation. Although he did not see it
in the light of the theory of evolution, — it was indeed far too early for that, —
the general struggle for existence, as well as the idea of sexual selection, was
well known to him. And many other problems of modern times did he
touch. Let us only recall the fact that to the pious and pure mind of this
great naturalist there was no objection to place homo sapiens as the first
Hnk in the continuous chain of organisms.

His works may shine with everlasting brightness through all ages, as
long as mankind devotes itself to the study of nature. His name is cere
perentiius, but this Academy of Sciences and the whole people of Sweden
feel deeply and are gratefully touched by the honor which now is bestowed
upon our great compatriot, when his name is given to a monumental bridge
connecting the Botanical Garden and the Zoological Park in New York.

K. A. H. MoRXER.
Chr. AuRrv'iLLius, Secretary.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 50

Eungl. Svenska Vetenskapsakademien, TTpsala.

The Royal Society of Sciences at Upsala has had the honor and the
pleasure of receiving your letter, informing them of the impressive manner
in which the memory of their great countryman, Carl von Linne, will be
celebrated in the metropolis of the United States.

To every Swede, and especially to our Society, whose honor it is to count
Linn6 as the greatest ornament of its ranks, it is highly gratifying to see that
the memory of the man whom all the world recognizes as princeps hotani-
corum, is also beyond the Atlantic held so sacred that the two hundredth
anniversary of his birth will be celebrated there with the same love and
reverence as in his own countr}\ And we fully appreciate the delicate
courtesy which has led you to immortalize his name among you by dedicat-
ing to him the beautiful bridge which unites your Botanical Garden with
the Zoological Park.

The necessity of answering your honored letter without delay renders it
impossible for the Royal Society of Sciences to enter more fully on the epoch-
making significance of the great Linn^'s life and work. Nor do we consider
it necessary for us to do so, least of all in relation to your renowned Academy,
which takes the lead in the grand scientific evolution of America. Do we
not both realize that Linne's great genius has laid the foundations on which
botanical science goes on building this very day? We both realize the
unceasing debt of gratitude which both hemispheres owe to his immortal
name. And so on both sides of the Atlantic we celebrate with deep-felt
enthusiasm the two hundredth anniversary' of his birth.

We offer you our best wishes on the memorable day, and congratulate
you on your successful work in the immense field of learning.

J. A. Ekmax, Archbishop of Sweden,

President.
N. C. DuNER, Honorary Secretary.

Professor Hans Reusch, Kristiania, Norway.
{Honorary Member of the Academy.)

In mv working-room at the Geological Survey of Nonvav for many
years I have had only one portrait hanging, — that of Linnaeus. 1 regard
him as the household spirit of every good naturalist.

60 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Geological Commission of Finland.

On behalf of the Geological Commission of Finland, we desire first of
all to express our high appreciation of the honor rendered us in inviting the
Commission to take part in the celebration, by the New York Academy,
of the two hundredth anniversary of Carl von Linne.

We are proud to think that we have some right to reckon this great
memory among our own, because Finland in Linne's time was united to
Sweden; and a large number of us Finlanders are still, by language and
descent, connected with that land. Among his disciples were also several
of our countrymen ; and the interest which ever since that period has existed
here for the study of botany, and also of zoology, we regard as a direct
inheritance from Linne's time. Not only naturalists ex professo have taken
part in the investigation of the flora and fauna of our country, but also
physicians, clergymen, government officials and the general public, who
have, ever since Linne's days, constantly and with zealous eagerness lent
their aid to the augmentation of our store of knowledge in things pertaining
to natural science.

By his travels, among the first which were undertaken for a purely
scientific purpose, Linne has also given an example to the numerous explorers
who since his time have gone out from northern lands — among those born
in Finland we may mention Laxman the explorer of Siberia, Castren the
linguist, and Baron A. E. Nordenskiold, the geologist, and discoverer of the
Northeast passage — and to all those who, after Linn6's time, have united
the courage and energy of the pioneer with scientific thoroughness.

We geologists remember in especial that Linne — who had very correct
ideas of the geological sequence among the silurian rocks of Sweden and
the importance of fossils, and whose conception of the geological importance
of the deluge was for his time unusually free from bias — can be reckoned
among the early pioneers of geology and as a predecessor of the great natu-
ralists who somewhat later, in Scotland and Saxony, laid the foundation-
stones of scientific geology. He had a notion of the immense length of
geological time, and expressed opinions which contained the germ of the
actualistic doctrine that afterwards proved so fruitful for our science.

It has been the mission of the Anglo-Saxon nations to work out this
doctrine and to build up on this basis the science of geology. When in our
days we Northerners see without jealousy the hegemony in natural science
pass over to the great nations which have continents for their field of re-
search, we still remember with pride that it was at one time held by the
little nation to which Linne belonged, and see in the festival with which

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 61

your honored society celebrates the two hundredth anniversary of his birth a
recognition that all scientific exploration which is carried on in an unpreju-
diced spirit of order and truth is a work in the vSpirit of Linne.

Remembering the bond which thus connects your great nation with the
small countries of northern Europe, we wish especially to recall to you one
of Linne's disciples, the explorer Pelir Kalm, professor of botany at the
University of Abo in Finland. He was very highly esteemed by his great
teacher. In Linne's list of the naturalists of his time, in which each one
was distinguished with a certain rank, Linn^ himself was general, and Kalm
had the rank of major. Commissioned by the Royal Swedish Academy
of Sciences, Kalm, as is well known, traveled far into North America, and
afterwards published an uncommonly accurate and minute account of his
observations, which was translated into several languages. He penetrated
into what was then considered the Far West, to the Lake of Ontario ; and
it was through his letters to Benjamin Franklin, in which Kalm with his
usual minuteness described the Falls of Niagara, that this great wonder of
nature first became more generally known.

What a lapse of time has passed since that visit of the disciple of Linne
to North x\merica! — a time measured more properly by the wonderful
development of civilization than by the number of years that have gone by.
Over this vast continent, where then were forests and prairies, the abodes of
the wild Indian, has the white man now built his homes, and it is strewn
with schools in which the children learn to designate the plants and animals
with the names given them by Linne. Everywhere there are universities
in which the study of natural science is carried on with the aid of means
and appliances which Linne never could have dreamed of. Where Kalm,
at the mouth of the Hudson River, found a town v>'hich he says was then
"about half as big again as Gothenburg in Sweden," lies now one of the
greatest cities of the world; and in this city the two hundredth anniversary
of Linne is now celebrated in a way that shows that his memory is as much
honored there as in his fatherland.

What a proof of his greatness, v/hat a guaranty that he will forever be
regarded as one of the master-minds of mankind!

J. J. Sederholm.
Benj. Frosterus.

Senaat der Rijks-Universiteit te Leiden.

The Leiden University Senate has the honor to present its congratula-
tions to the New York Academy of Sciences on the occasion of the commem-

62 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

oration festivities celebrating the two hundredth anniversary of the birth
of Carl von Linne. The whole scientific vi^orld unites in grateful veneration
of an admirable scholar, whose reputation is least of all lost in the land
where he spent three of the most fruitful years of his life. Our Senate ex-
presses its feelings of cordial sympathy with the way in which the New York
Academy of Sciences intends to celebrate the anniversary of his birth by
the erection of an architectural monument symbolizing the work of a man
whose genius embraced the two realms of living nature.

For the Senate

W. NoLEN, Rector Magniflcus.

H. P. WiJSMAN, Secretary.

Professor A. A. W. Hubrecbt, University of Utrecht.

{Honorary Member of the Academy.)

The great Swede whose birth — now two hundred years ago — will be
commemorated all over the world on Ma}' 23, passed many years of his life
in Holland. It is thus natural that inany local reminiscences are connected
with his name in different parts of this country. If we allow our thoughts
to go back for more than a century and a half, we can imagine Linnaeus
roaming about on his botanical excursions over those same fields between
's Graveland and Hilversum where Hugo de Vrics lately encountered an
emigrant from the United States (Oenothera lamarckiana) that was to be-
come a starting-point for new and important speculations about the species
problem.

The foundations for an answer to that problem were laid in a quite mas-
terly manner by Linnaeus. In the latter half of the nineteenth century we
have, however, been accustomed, after reading Darwin's works, to consider
the problem as non-existing; species, apparently, being in slow and imper-
ceptible continuity.

Hugo de Vries has again limited species between the occurrence of two
mutations, each species thus being a real entity in time and in space. This
does not prevent de Vries from being at the same time one of the stanchest
disciples of Darwin, in whose steps he is treading.

Linnseus's species differ from de Vries's in that they are the primary
network between the meshes of which de Vries has spun out the lacework
of the mutation theory.

The new generations thus attempt to continue Linnreus's and Darwin's
work, and unite in paying homage to the memory of the foimder of the
" Systema Naturae."

BICENTENARY OF LINN.EUS 63

L'Academie de M€decine de Paris.

L' Academic de Medecine de Paris est heureuse de repondre a rinvitation
qu'elle a re9ue de I'Academie des Sciences de New- York, a I'occasion du
deuxieme centenaire de la naissance de Liniie. EUe s'associe cordialement
aux hommages rendus a la memoire de I'illustre naturaliste par les corps
savants de la grande cite americaine.

Tout a 6te dit sur Toeuvre de Linne et sur la revolution qu'il a op^r^e
dans les sciences naturelles. Au milieu de la confusion et de I'obscurite
qui regnaient avant lui, il a su, le premier, degager et rendre fecondes les
idees generales eparses dans les ecrits de ses devanciers; partout il a porte
I'ordre, la clarte et des reformes heureuses.

Obsers'ateur incomparable, a I'amour de la verite, il joignait une imagi-
nation vive, un esprit fertile et sagace, I'expression verbale pittoresque et
le sentiment profond des choses de la nature. Ses ecrits occupent depuis
longtemps la premiere place dans I'estime des savants, et Ton se demande,
en voyant leur prodigieuse etendue, ce qui doit le plus etonner, du nombre
de ces ouvrages ou de I'importance de chacun d'eux.

Mais, de tous les titres de Linne a la reconnaissance de la posterite, le
plus beau est sans contredit celui de fondateur de cette langue scientifique
nouvelle, la nomenclature binaire, qui constitue le plus grand progres
accompli dans les sciences naturelles au dix-huitilme siecle. A la prolixite
confuse des descriptions ant^rieures, il substituait un langage net et precis,
en introduisant I'usage de designer les ^tres par un nom de genre, qui les
unit, et par un nom d'esp^ce, qui les distingue. La nomenclature linneenne
s'est etendue a toutes les branches de I'histoire naturelle ; elle en a prodir
gieusement facilite I'etude en fournissant une langue commune aux savants
de tous les pays.

Le systeme de classification etabli par Linne n'a pas moins contribue
aux progres de la botanique pendant pres d'un siecle. Dans ce cadre
artificiel, les plantes nouvelles se rangeaient aisement d'apres un petit nombre
de caracteres empruntes a la fleur et judicieusement choisis. Des lors
I'etude des vegetans: de\'int accessible a la multitude, les recherchcs scienti-
fiques se multiplierent dans toutes les parties du globe avec une activite
considerable.

Toutefois, I'esprit philosophique du grand naturaliste ne pouvait manquer
de saisir toute I'importance d'une methode plus parfaite, et, s'il nc lui a pas
et^ donne de la realiser lui-meroe, on pcut dire du moins qu'il en a etc le
plus ardent promoteur et que nul, plus que lui, n'a contribue a I'avenement
de la grande reforme operee plus tard par T^aurcnt de Jussieu.

64 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Professeur de medecine, Linne s'est efforc6 de diriger I'etude de la
botanique vers les applications a I'art de gu^rir. II a cu Ic merite de formuler
nettement le principe qui devait servir de guide a la recherche des propriety
medicamenteuses des plantes, principe fond6 sur les analogies des caracteres
botaniques et des caracteres chimiques des vegetaux. Si les successeurs
de Linne ont parfois exagere la port6e de la theorie, elle n'en a pas moins
ouvert une voie feconde aux recherches ulterieures.

L'ancienne Societe Royale de Medecine de Paris, dont notre Compagnie
a recueilli I'heritage, a compte jadis I'illustre professeur d'Upsal au nombre
de ses Associes etrangers. L' Academic de Medecine de Paris est done
particulierement qualifiee pour celebrer avec vous I'anniversaire du grand
naturaliste su^dois. Elle remercie 1' Academic des Sciences de New- York
de I'avoir convi6e a cette commemoration, qui lui permet d'exprimer ses
sentiments d'admiration et de reconnaissance pour le savant dont I'oeuvre
geniale a projete sur le monde une si vive ct si puissante lumiere que I'eclat
n'en est pas encore affaibli.

Ariiand Gautier, Le President.

Jaccoud, Le Secretaire 'per'petxiel.

Universite de Lyon.

Le Conseil de I'Universite de Lyon est heureux de s 'associer moralement
au deuxi^me centenaire de la naissance de I'illustre naturaliste Suedois
Charles Linne. II addresse a cette occasion I'hommage de son admiration
profonde pour le createur de la premiere classification scientifique des rfegnes
animal et vegetal; pour I'inventeur de la nomenclature binominale qui a
introduit une si lumineuse clarte dans le chaos jusque la obscur de la nomen-
clature biologique; pour I'immortel auteur du " Systema Naturre" qui est le
premier inventaire universel des richesses du monde anime.

II envoie en meme temps h. 1' Academic des Sciences de New- York
1 'expression de sa gratitude la plus cordiale pour I'aimable pensee qu'elle
a cue d 'associer I'Universite de Lyon a cette fete de la Science internationale.

T. JouBiN, Le Recteur,

President duCo7iseil de I'lIniversitS.

Societe des Amis des Sciences Naturelles de Rouen.

La Society des Amis des Sciences naturelles de Rouen (France) a I'hon-
neur d'exprimer a I'illustre Academic des Sciences de New York sa vive

BICENTENARY OF LINNAEUS 65

satisfaction de savoir qu'un pont de cette admirable ville sera d^di^ a
I'immortel Linn6, dont les travaux geniaux constituent la base de la taxi-
nomie, et dont le nom sera perpetue a jamais par les innombrables especes
animales et vegetales qu'il a d6crites.

La Soci^te des Amis des Sciences naturelles de Rouen prie I'illustre
Academic des Sciences de New York d'agreer I'hommage de sa respectueuse
admiration, joint a 1 'assurance de ses meilleurs sentiments de confraternity.

Henri Gadeau de Kerville, President.

Society d'Histoire Naturelle de Toulouse.

eloge de linn^, appreciative de son (EUVRE.

"Tibi suaveo dsedala tellus
Suramittit flores." — Lucrece, De Nature Rerum.

C'est a vous, divin naturaliste, que runivers entier pr^sente en ce jour ses
plus belles fleurs.

Nous saluerons tout d'abord le savant qui d'un trait de son puissant
g^nie, saisit la structure intime des vegetal. Lui aussi a eu la gloire d'ouvrir
un des sanctuaires de la nature et de s'initier le premier a quelques-uns de
ses secrets.

"Effringere ut arcta
Natura; primus poetarum claustra cupiret." — Lucrece.

Avant Linne le v^g^tal d'^tait qu'un vulgaire objet d' admiration, I'elemcnt
a la fois r^jouissant et decoratif du paysage. Mais le g6nie du botaniste
que nous fetons cut y lire tout un monde nouveau, et de la comparaison de ce
monde avec celui des animaux sut brillamment deo-ager la nation de hie-
rarchie entre les deux regnes, entre le v^g^tal et I'animal. Alors se dessina
en quelque sorte le premier anneau, la trame primordiale qui devait bientdt
amener I'esprit de I'homme a se rcprescnter une chaine complete des ^tres.
Reconnaissons done en Linn6 un ancetre de Darwin.

Mais le regne vegetal s'est en quelque sorte anim6 sous le regard de ce
scrutateur amoureux de la nature. Qu'est ce en effet pour Linn^ que cette
riante parure que nous nous plaisons a appeler corolle de la fleur? Tout
simplement le lit nuptial des organes sexuels, ceux qui reproduiront I'csp^ce.
Et que seront, examines attentivement, chacun de ces derniers organes,
tant mS,le que femelle, sinon un renduirent, une ebauche un "caneoas" de
celui de I'animal, comme a fait si bien ressortir le physiologiste Bichat?
C'est cette d^couverte qui constitue le trait original et saillant entre tous,
le trait de g^nie, r^p6tons le, de I'ceuvre de Linn^. Derri^re I'homme de
g^nie nous devons admirer le philosophe.

66 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Aussitot que Linne eut eue bieii presente dans son esprit la continuite de
la clialne, disons mieux de I'echelle des etres vivants avec leur lois generales
communes aux deux regnes a la fois, il eut aussi toutes desporees d'une
fa9on tres reguliere les bases d'une classification des vegetaux. -^11 les
r^partit en vingt quatre categories, basees toutes sur les rapports des organes
males et des organes femelles dans une meme fleur ou dans des fleurs separ^es,
les organes sont respectivement appelfe les "maris et les femmes" par
Linne. Signalons a titre de curiosite:

La elasse xiv, Didynamie. — Deux puissances quatre maris dont deux
plus grands et deux plus petits.

La elasse xxi, Monoecie. — Une seule maisoii : les maris habitent avec
les femmes dans des lits differents (dans la meme maison).

La elasse xxii, Diaicie. — Les maris habitent des domiciles et des lits
divers.

La elasse xxiii, Polygamie. — Plusieurs noces : les maris habitent dans
des lits distincts avec des epouses legitimes et des concubines.

La elasse xxiv, Cryptogamie. — Noces cachees, les noces sont celebrees
clandestinement.

Cette theorie, toute geniale qu'elle etait, n'etait pas cependant destinee
a subsister. EUe n'en demeurere pas moins comme le plus beau monument
de Tdge d'or de la botanique. Aussi le chemin etait fray^ dans le domaine
vegetal: la notion de la classification allait devenir un chapitre important
des etudes philosophiques, et, gr^ce a une plus complete connaissance de la
nature, la philosophic elle meme allait prendre un nouvel essor, agrandir,
transforme son domaine, descendre des hauteurs metaphysiques a des donn6es
plus positives. Et cela jusques au jour ou le progr&s incessant des sciences
naturelles viendrait introduire une nouvelle idee geniale, grace a laquelle
les deux regnes auraient des tendances a la confondu en un seul : par voie
de progres nous avons nomme cette evolution dont Linne avait jet6 les
premiers fondaments. Comme il etait loin, quand il ecrivait la Philosophia
Botanica de pouvoir entrevoir seulement la grandeur future de I'edifice
dont il jetait las assises ! Quelle est enfin I'epithete qui convient a Linne au
milieu de ce que Ton pourrait appeler le "choeur des botanistes?"

Un savant Suisse, Rueper, s'est pW a caracteriser chacun des grands
historiens du r^gne vegetal. II nous represente le tr6s subtil Adanson.
I-« tres ingenieux Bernard de Jussieu, les eminents Robert Brown et De
Candolle, quant a Linne, il a sa place sureminente, c'est le divin Linne,
divers Linnaeus! Le divin Linn6! nous lui maintiendrons ce sublime titre,
puisque ce fut un des privil^es surhumains pour ainsi dire, dou6 des
lumieres tout a fait superieurs, qui sert ouvrir une des portes d'un sanc-
tuaire de la nature, introduisent aussi a sa suite dans ce domaine repute

BICENTENARY OF LINN AW S G7

inaccessible jusques a lui toute une legion d'eminents travailleurs destines
a eu explorer les recours et a continuer son oeuvre!

Le divin Linne ! n'avait-il pas en effet comme profondement gravee dans
tout son Hre I'empreinte de cette Divinite qu'il ne perdit jamais de vue ?
ne considerait il pas I'oeuvre qu'il avait accompli dans la science comme le
plus be) hommage qu'il fut capable de lui rendre quelques unes de ses pages
redisent plusieurs fois le nom du Createur de tous les etres. Comme nous
regrettons de n'avoir pu retrouver cette pri&re, si sublime dans sa brevity,
dans laquelle il exprime a I'auteur de la nature sa reconnaissance eternelle
pour la joie qu'il resscnt de I'oeuvre qu'il lui a permis d'accompli! Bornons
nous a mentionner les invocations qui terminent un de ses chapitres: —

"O Jehovah, quam ampla sunt opera tua!
Quam ea omnia in sapientia fecisti!
Quam plena est terra possessione tua!"

Ce sont les propres accents de David, au psaume 103, mais sur un ton plus
renforce.

Saluons en terminant I'heureuse patrie de Linne, la Suede. La race des
genies, si brillamment inauguree par le botaniste dont nous fetons aujourd'hui
I'annivei'saire deux fois seculaire de la naissance, cette race disons nous, ne
parait pas volontaire s'epuiseren Scandinavie. Qu'il nous suffire de nommer
un contemporain, le celebre chimiste Arrhenius, qui semble lui aussi, par sa
belle theorie des ions, avoir revolutionne a la fois le monde chimique et le
monde electrique, preparant ainsi une nouvelle voie aux decouvertes indus-
trielles de I'avenix'. L'oeu\Te de Linne etait dans le regne vegetal. Arrhe-
nius a roula la tente dans un troisieme r^gne, celui dont toute vie est exclue;
les secrets qu'il croit en oil arraches a la nature sont d'un ordre encore plus
intime et plus mysterieux que ceux que lui avaient derobes le grand botaniste.
Comme consequence des travaux de ces deux grands hommes, la science
pent dire aujourd'hui avec plus de raison que le hero de Lucrece : II y a plus
bien de mysterieuse dans la nature: nous avons triomphe de toutes les
barrieres, et nous avons conquis la notion du degre de puissance qu'a 6te
delimite a chaque etre et de la borne qu'il ne pent depasser.

"Unde refert nobis victor quid ponit oreri,
Quid nequeat, finita potestas denique eusque
Quanara ut ratione atque alte terminus hoerens."

Lucrece, De Natura Rerum.

H. DE Lastee, Bibliothecaire.

68 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Professor Charles Barrois, University of Lille.
(Honorary Member of the Academy.)

C'est un tr^s doux sentiment pour les savants de la vieille Europe de
vivre un jour en pleine communion d'idees avec les savants de la jeune
Am6rique, pour jeter le souvenir d'un maitre commun, d'un bienfaiteur de
la science. L'histoire, les nations, I'homme ont bien 6volu6 depuis le jour
de Linn^; le respect d(i a son nom demeure, et s'en va grandissant. Puisse
son exemple faire des emules nombreux dans votre grand pays, qui de nos
jours rend de si eminents services a la cause de la science.

Eaiserliche Leopoldinisch-Garolinische Deutsche Akademie der
Naturforscher, Halle A.S.

Der New York Academy of Sciences entbietet die Kaiserliche Leopol-
dinisch-Garolinische Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher zu der Feier des
200-Geburtstages von Karl von Linn]£ einen Gruss, da sie sich einea
weiss mit derselben in dem Bestreben den grossen schwedischen Natur-
forscher zu ehren. War doch unsere Akademie die erste wissenschaftliche
Korperschaft, welche bereits 1736 den jungen Linnaeus in ihre Mitte
aufnahm und ihm den glanzvollen Beinamen eines Dioskorides Se-
cundus beilegte. Wohl auf kcine anderen Geistesheroeu kann das stolze
Wort: Deus creavit, Linnaeus disposuit auch nur annahernd angewendet
werden. So unscheinbar die Linnaeus borcalis ist, umso grosser steht
Linn6 als Naturforscher da. Aber nicht nur als Botaniker und Zoologe
erwarb der Jubilar unsterblichen Ruhm, auch in der Medizin leistete er fiir
die damalige Zeit in der Materia Medica wie der Diatetik Hervorragendes
und war wohl derjenige, welcher in Schweden fiir die pathologische Ana-
tomie als bahnbrechend anzusehen ist, da er die Leichensektionen daselbst
einbiirgerte.

Der New York Academy of Sciences gestatten wir uns anbei den Abdruck
eines Aufsatzes zu iiberreichen, welcher zu Ehren von Karl von Linn6 in
der Leopoldina soeben erschien.

A. Wangerin, Prdsideni.
Roth, Bibliothekar.

BICENTENARY OF LINNAEUS 69

Geh. Rat Professor Dr. H. Rosenbusch, University, Heidelberg.

(Honorary Member of the Academy.)

. . . Leider ist es mir bei der Flille von Arbeit, die vor mir liegt, nicht
moglich, Ihrem Wiinsche [for a document to be read at the Bicentenary] zu
entsprechen, aber Sie diirfen iiberzeugt sein, dass meine Gedanken und
Wunsche am 23 Mai bei Ihnen in New York sein werden. Moge Ihr Fest
den schonsten Verlauf nehmen und ein freundlicher Stern iiber der schonen
Briicke walten, die den Namen eines der bedeutsamsten Begriinder der
Naturwissenschaften tragen soil.

Ihre Nation gibt der ganzen Welt ein nachahmungswiirdiges Beispiel,
indem sie ein stolzes Werk der modernen Technik nach einem Forscher
benennt, dessen ganzes Leben dem hochsten menschlichen Gute, der
Wissenschaft, geweiht war.

Regia Societas Scientiarum Bohemica, Prague.

The Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences in Prague, fully appreciating
the importance of celebrating the two hundredth anniversary of Carl von
Linn^'s birth by the New York Academy of Sciences, is glad to join the
sister institutions in honoring this great naturalist, whose efforts in the first
splendid achievements and developments of biology are of perpetual value.

When, in the beginning of modern times, in the multitude of known and
newly discovered organic forms, there was a complete chaos to be feared
instead of an exact distinction of them, it was the genius of Linn6 which
arranged the masses of rav%' material into the scientific edifice of a strictly
logical system. Linn6's epochal "Systema Naturae" laid the foundation for
all future systematics of animals and plants.

Introducing the descriptive method and terminology, establishing a clear
definition of each species in its genus, order and class, Linne gained a firm
basis for an exact deduction of organic forms. It was Linn6 who at the
same time united the analytical and synthetical tendencies of his predecessors
into an efficient discipline.

Linn^'s method has facilitated the knowledge of the flora and fauna of
whole territories, and we have to thank this method that also in Bohemia
very early efforts for a systematical analysis of the organic world have been
biviUght to full efficiency.

The Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences, the oldest center of scientific

70 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OE SCIENCES

efforts in Austria, has from the very beginning of her existence founded her
work on Linne's teaching, and has in progress of time, with the increasing
numbers of successful scientists amongst her members, continually contrib-
uted to the systematical knowledge of organic life in Bohemia. We need
only point out the old classical systematicians of zoology and botany, —
M. E. Bloch, Von Stein, K. P. Presl, Lad. Celakovsky, and others who
enriched the publications of the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences in the
spirit of Linne.

And the researches of modern times, so important for the study of organic
life in the enormous mass of its zoological and botanical forms, though they
are far advanced in their ideas and methods, still must always gratefully
remember the invaluable deseils of the great Linne for the foundation and
development of biology.

For the Royal Bohemian Society of Sciences :

K. Vrba, President.

Dr. V. E. MouREK, General Secretary.

F. Vejdovsky, Secretary of the Class for

Mathematical and Natural Sciences.

La Society de Physique et d'Histoire Naturelle de Geneve, Suisse.

La Societe de Physique et d'Histoire naturelle de Geneve s'associe de
grand cceur a la manifestation que font les Societes Americaines pour
celebrer le bi-centenaire de Linne.

Geneve, plus que toute autre, s'y associe avec joie: ses naturalistes tels
que les Vaucher, les de CandoUe, les de Saussure ont toujours hautement
apprecie I'ceuvre du grand Suedois, et leurs descendants ne peuvent que
suivre leurs traces et applaudir a tout ce qui pourra perpetuer la memoire
de ce savant.

Notre Societe adresse done des vceux chaleureux pour le succes de la
manifestation americaine, qui sera digne de celui qui a laisse une trace si
profonde dans les sciences naturelles.

A. Brdn, President.

Specula Vaticana, Rome.

The Specula Vaticana heartily joins in your celebration of the two hun-
dredth anniversary of the birth of Carl von Linn6.

The astronomers of the Specula recognize a close relation between their

BICENTENARY OF LINN.EUS 71

own realm and that of the distinguished Swedish naturalist, in that stars
and flowers are called the " eyes of the heavens " and the "eyes of the field,"
which, with the eyes of the child, are numbered among the most precious
gifts of the Creator.

We rejoice with you that Linne has unfolded to us the beauties and
riches of the eyes of the field, which, no less than those of the heavens, show
forth the crlors' of God.

John G. Hagen, S.J., Director.

fc>

Reale Osservatorio di Palermo, Italia.

Poiche in occasione del second© centanario della nascita di Carlo Linneo,
che cotesta Accademia celebrera ii 23 corrente, la S. V. Illraa mi ha gentil-
mente invitato a contribuire un document© ufficiale apprerzante I'opera del
Naturalista Svedese, io, non avendo una competenza sufficiente per dire
cosa degna di un cosi eminente Scienrato in una ricorrenza cosi solenne, mi
sono rivolto per aiuto al mio illustre collega Prof. A. Borzi, direttore del R.
Giardino Botanico e Coloniale di Palermo, il quale mi ha risposto con la
lettera che qui Le hascrivo.

"E'tanto diflBcile dire qualche cosa di nuovo su Carlo Linneo che io mi
trovo imbarazzato a rispondere alia sua domanda. Da quasi due secoli
tutte la vita di questo sommo Naturalista & stata indagata in ogni piii minuta
particolarita, tutte le sue opere studiate con tanta profondita di dottrina,
che io non saprei che cosa dire. Certamente di Linneo si puo affermare
che nessun botanico o naturalista raggiunse a cosi alta fama come lyui:
non v'^ persona mediocremente colta che non rammenti il nome di Carlo
Linneo, mentre di tanti e tanti altri insigni naturalisti il ricordo non ha
vareato cosi vasti confini. II piu grande merito di Linneo, second© me,
non consiste r©lamente nell© avere riformato e piantato su basi incrollabili
la sistematica vegetale, ma s©pra tutt© quell© di aver tracciato le linee
fondamentali della Botanica Scientifica moderna divinandone meraviglio-
samente i c©ncetti. Basta leggere il piccolo libro intitolato " Philosophia
botanica" per convincersene.

"Forse potra far piarere all' Accademia de New York il comunicarle un
d©cumento inedito curiosissimo che interessa la storia del nostro Istituto
Botanico a prop©sit© di Carlo Linneo. Quando nel 1792 si fondo I'Orto
Botanico di Palermo fu eretta una statua in onore del s©mm© b©tanico
svedese. Lo scult©re fu Vitale Zuccio, che la m©dell6 in istucco il doppio
del naturalc. Qucsta statua fu copiata da un ritratto di Linneo, dal Linneo
stesso giudicato il piii somigliante e doA^to al pittore Roslins. II Zuccio,

72 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

scultore palermitano, non ebbe la occasione di vedere questa pittura, ma
semplicemente una incisione eseguita dall' artista Bervic nel 1779. Im-
portante per5 b il fatto che la prima statua eretta in onore di Linneo fu la
nostra, mentre il primo ricordo marmoreo (un merzo busto) dell' insigne
botanico, che si conosca, e quello che eresse il giardino delle piante di Parigi
il 1790. La patria di Linneo ebbe al 1820 la prima statua dell' immortale
suo figlio."

lo mi un pregio di mandare a Lei una fotografua della statua di Linneo
di cui ha partato il Prof. Borzi.

F. Angelitti, Diretiore.

Real Academia de Ciencias Ezactas, Fisicas y Naturales de Madrid.

La Real Academia de Ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales de Madrid
estima como honrosa distincion el convite, que esa ilustre Academia le
dirige, para contribuir a la celebracion del segundo centenario del nacimiento
de Carlos Linneo.

Gustoslsima se asocia k las solemnidades con que se festeje la veneranda
memoria del naturalista, que, antes y mejor que otro alguno, supo imprimir
orden, metodo y sistema al estudio y conocimiento de los seres naturales,
dotdndo a la ciencia de una nomenclatura y de una nocion de las especies,
base de todas las descripciones y agrupaciones de los seres vivos, posterior-
mente aceptadas.

Espafia se complace tanto mas vivamente en la exaltacion de la obra del
sapientlsimo maestro sueco, cuanto que por intermedio de un discipulo
suyo estuvo con ^1 en constante comunicacion mientras vivio.

Fenga pues, la Academia de Ciencias de Nueva York por presente en
esplritu a la Real Academia de Ciencias exactas, fisicas y naturales de
Madrid, en todos los actos, con que el 23 de Mayo glorifique a Linneo.

Josf; EcHEGARAY, El Ptesidente.
Francisco de P. Arrillaga, El Secretario.

Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society, Falmouth, England.

To the members of the New York Academy of Sciences and assembled
guests, on the occasion of the celebration of the bi-centenary of the birth
of Carl Von Linn6, the members of the Royal Cornwall Pol}'technic Society
(England) send greetings.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 73

As the parent of all societies calling themselves by the name Poljlechnic,
and having from its birth, in 1832, consistently adhered to the purpose of
its founders, viz., — the encouragement of science, as well as the fine and
industrial arts, — the Royal Cornwall Polytechnic Society offers its congratu-
lations to its fellow-workers in the domain of science in the great city of New
York, on the practical and comprehensive character of the commemorative
exercises which their enterprise and wisdom have projected for the interesting
occasion falling on May 23 next. It trusts nothing will occur to prevent
each function from realization in a manner befitting the memory of so great
a benefactor to natural science, and fully sustaining the prestige of one of the
foremost of the learned societies in America.

While leaving it to societies of wider renown to express the world's
indebtedness and gratitude to Carl von Linn6, who has been truly styled
"the father of modern systematic natural history," and who v,^as the founder
of the now universally adopted binominal system of scientific nomenclature,
the Royal Cornwall Poljlechnic Society cannot, on this historic occasion,
refrain from recording its own appreciation of the work accomplished by
one who, though a distinguished son of Sweden, belongs, by virtue of his
brilliant achievements, to every land and people.

The careful and far-reaching character of the investigations of Carl
von Linne probably stand without parallel in the annals of science. Sur-
rounded in early life by conditions which would have deterred most men,
genius and a whole-hearted enthusiasm for the pursuit of knowledge in a
direction where he was destined subsequently to hold a position which,
after the lapse of two hundred years, is still unique, his clear insight, added
to his almost incomparable faculty for dealing with vast accumulations of
material, enabled him, after years of constant devotion to his self-imposed
task, to evolve cosmos out of chaos. The foundation which he laid for the
determination of genera and species was the soundest that science had been
invited to adopt, and on it succeeding generations have reared a noble
structure.

What the New York Academy of Sciences has been able to accomplish,
what the Royal Cornwall Pohi;echnic Society has done for the encourage-
ment of the many branches of natural science, v/hat is being done by kin-
dred societies all the world over, has been made possible through the new
era which was ushered in by the publication of the numerous erudite works
from the pen of him to whom all nations are now paying homage.

To-day we think of the student whose indomitable courage enabled him
to triumph over difficulties of the most trying kind, and to fill his appointed
niche in human affairs; of the man whose life was so devout that his first
sight of an English furze-bush, arrayed in all its golden splendor, was to

74 ANNALS NEW YONK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

him fitting occasion for expressing gratitude to God; of the distinguished
scientist on whom the world's greatest prizes had been freely showered,
selecting one of the most unobtrusive of plants to perj^etuate his own name.
After two hundred years, Carl von Linne enters into full possession of his
own well-earned estate, an estate fixed deep and indelibly in the heart and
affections of every student of nature.

John D. Enys, President.

E. W. Newton, Secretary.

The Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society, Manchester, England.

The Manchester Literary and Philosophical Society willingly joins with
the New York Academy of Sciences in its commemoration of the two hun-
dredth anniversary of the birth of the illustrious Linnaeus.

His profound insight into the affinities and disresemblances of organized
beings; his vivid differentiation of natural groups; his pithy, crisp charac-
terization of orders, genera and species; and his binomial principle of nomen-
clature, — all exercised a profoundly stimulating influence upon the progress
of biological science.

Nor must the personal merits of the man pass unrecognized. His acknowl-
edgment of the work of his predecessors, his self-sacrificing labors, the en-
thusiasm with which he inspired his students, and his remarkable humility
— so fittingly commemorated in the Linnoea borealis — are qualities which
provoke the admiration of naturalists, alike in the hemisphere in which he
worked and in the hemisphere in which this commemoration is being held.

Harold B. Dixon, President.
Francis Jones, 1 Honorary

Frederick William Gamble, j Secretaries.

Professor James Geikie, University of Edinburgh.

(Honorary Member of the Academy.)

1 deem it a high honor to be invited to place a little stone on the ever-
increasinff cairn raised by lovers of science all the world over in memory
of Carl von Linne. The distinguished Swedish naturalist has made a name
for himself that can never die. Admirable as an exact observer and care-
ful collator of evidence, and no less admirable as a generalizer, he is an
ensample to every sincere student of nature. Before this bright genius

BICENTENARY OF LINNMVS 75

appeared, the study of natural science was in a more or less chaotic state.
Doubtless much knowledge of living things had been acquired before his
time, but hitherto that knowledge had not been systematized. It was
reserved for Linne not only greatly to increase the stores of learning, but to
indicate how it was possible to group and classify the multitudinous forms
of life so as to show that all formed part of one grand harmonious whole.
One can hardly exaggerate his influence upon the study of the natural
sciences. His was one of those creative, fertile minds from which all who
made his acquaintance, either personally or through his writings, were bound
to catch inspiration. He must have had a most engaging personality, and
was undoubtedly filled with enthusiasm. How otherwise could he have
drawn annually to Upsala some fifteen hundred pupils from all parts of
Europe? His "Systcma Naturae," "Genera Plantarum," "Critica Bo-
tanica," and other famous works, are unquestionably notable landmarks in
the history of natural science. Science and their influence we can to some
extent estimate ; but who can estimate the profound influence he must have
exerted on the many thousand pupils who listened to his prelections, and
who carried his enthusiasm with them into every civilized country! Hon-
ored and admired in his own day, Carl von Linne will ever continue to be
recognized as one of the foremost men of all time.

The Royal Society of Canada.

The President and Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada beg to offer
their cordial thanks to the New York Academy of Sciences for its kind
invitation to participate in the exercises commemorative of the two hundredth
anniversary of the birth of Carl von Linne, and express their regret that they
are unable to send a delegate to personally represent their Society on this
most Interesting occasion.

The Royal Society of Canada, which has just closed its Twenty-fifth
Annual Meeting, shares with the New York Academy of Sciences and with
kindred associations all over the world, in its high appreciation of the eminent
services rendered to the natural sciences by the transcendent ability, judg-
ment and foresight so remarkably displayed by the distinguished Swedish
naturalist of the eighteenth century. To him is due in no small measure
the modern system of scientific nomenclature, and by him were laid the
foundations of the classification of animals and plants upon which biologists
in all departments have since built their structures of scientific knowledge.
It is therefore In the highest degree fitting that the name of so great a man
as Linne, the precursor of a long line of eminent philosophers, should be

76 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

honored in America in the manner that is now proposed, and that the beauti-
ful bridge connecting the Botanical Gardens and the Zoological Park in
New York should by its name perpetually remind the passer-by of the great-
ness that may be achieved by intellectual and scientific attainments. In
an age that may be considered sordid in many of its occupations and aspira-
tions, such a reminder is of great value, and may lead many to think of the
man, and endeavor, in however humble a manner, to tread in his footsteps.
All honor to the name of Carl von Linne! May the torch which he
kindled with the flame of natural science, which has illuminated the path
of numberless followers during two hundred years, never be extinguished!
May we all strive by our diligent work, by our enthusiasm, by our lofty
aims and high hopes, to keep it alive and pass it on, ever growing more and
more brilliant, to those who shall come after us!

Wm. Saunders, President.

The Entomological Society of Ontario.

The President and Officers of the Entomological Society of Ontario are
pleased to have an opportunity of adding a few words, to the many which
will be read at the commemorative exercises which are to be held on the 23d
instant, in appreciation of the magnificent work which was done for the
whole world of science by Carl von Linne, the founder of systematic natural
history. It is, however, with deep regret that we find it impossible to send
a delegate to take part personally in this celebration.

By entomologists and botanists especially, the name of Linne must
always be held in reverence and respect, for to him is in large measure due
the placing of these branches of natural history on a stable and permanent
foundation. He was indeed the father of systematic biology; and the mem-
bers of our Society feel that too much honor can never be bestowed upon the
memory of so great a man. It is therefore a cause of much gratification
that a lasting monument in the shape of a beautiful bridge crossing the Bronx
River has been erected, which will be a constant reminder to all visiting
the Botanical Garden and Zoological Park of the work which was done by
this master mind.

James Fletcher, President.
Charles J. S. Bethune, Secretary.

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 77

Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate," Mexico, D.F.

By request of the Sociedad Cientifica "Antonio Alzate" of the City of
Mexico, I have the honor to represent that distinguished Society as its
delegate to the New York Academy of Sciences on the occasion of the
exercises commemorative of the two hundredth anniversary of the birth
of Linnaeus.

The Society Antonio Alzate, which represents the scientific thought of
the Republic of Mexico, is composed of men of high attainments, many of
whom, through the important official publications of the Society and through
other media, have made rich contributions to the sciences of botany, zoology,
chemistry, astronomy and other branches of learning. These enlightened
men are in full sympathy with the most advanced men of science in the
United States.

The members of this important Society are fully imbued with the Lin-
nsean spirit, and are animated by the same desire to emulate the great
example of the master that inspires their New York brethren.

By the instructions of the Society Antonio Alzate I bring the friendly
greetings and hearty sympathy of its members to the New York Academy
of Sciences as it celebrates this interesting and notable anniversary.

George T. Stevens, Delegate.

The Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University.

The Museum of Comparative Zoology in Harvard University accepts
with pleasure the invitation of the Academy to participate in the exercises
commemorative of Linnaeus, and it has requested Mr. William Brewster, a
member of its staff, to represent it upon that occasion.

Linnaeus embraced the whole department of natural history in its widest
sense. His conspicuous contributions to botany have much obscured the
fact that ever}' field of nature was investigated by him with productive results.
Throughout the entire range of inorganic and organic nature he passed with
steady step, introducing methods of study and systems of terminology which
brought order out of confusion.

Recognizing the indebtedness which all natural science owes to Linnaeus,
our Museum joins in the tributes which at this time the whole world is pay-
ing to his name.

Charles W. Eliot, President.
Alexander Agassiz, Secretary.

78 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The Boston Society of Natural History.

The Boston Society of Natural History, through its official representa-
tive, Mr. Joel Asaph Allen, sends its greetings and congratulations to
the New York Academy of Sciences, and desires to share in the celebration
of the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Carl von Linn^.

Upon the basis of the scientific achievements of the great Swedish
naturalist, all subsequent work in botany and zoology has been built up.
To his labors and to the system introduced by him, we owe the possibility
of recording, and thereby mastering, the immense and bewildering flora and
fauna of the world. Our debt to him can hardly be overestimated: there-
fore the Boston Society of Natural History is glad to add its tribute of admi-
ration and gratitude, and begs to thank the Academy for the opportunity
of participating in the present noteworthy celebration.

Charles Sedgwick Minot, President.

The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences.

The Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences gratefully accepts the
invitation of the New York Academy of Sciences to participate in the
commemorative exercises to be held on the two hundredth anniversary of
the birth of Linnseus.

The Academy appreciates the lasting influence which his work in botany
and zoology has exercised on the development of these sciences throughout
the whole world. Through his profound studies he was enabled to bring
order out of the chaotic writings of his predecessors, to establish the science
of taxonomy on a firm and satisfactory basis, and to prepare the way for a
natural and logical classification of plants and animals.

The Academy has the honor to appoint Professor Alexander W. Evans
as its authorized representative.

A. E. Verrill, President.
George F. Eaton, Secretary.

The American Journal of Science.

The editorial staff of the "American Journal of Science" — whose birth
in 1818 was contemporaneous with the beginnings of natural science in this
country, and which for nearly a century has kept pace with the growth of

t

BICENTENARY OF LINNAEUS 79

science, and ever striven to support and stimulate it — desires to express to
you its profound appreciation of the debt we all owe to the great Swedish
naturalist whose birth in 1707 you commemorate.

If science is classified knowledge, the highest credit belongs to him Avho
brings scientific facts and observations into a rational system: in this work
Linnaeus stands pre-eminent. To his keen mind it w^as given not only to
bring order among the genera and species of plants and animals, not only
to build up a lasting system of nomenclature, but also to develop in these
directions, as in the broader relations, a profound basis of classification
which has had a lasting influence upon science in all its branches.

Edward S. Dana, Editor-in-chief.

The Torrey Botanical Club, New York City.

A clearly-stated conspectus of contents and an index so arranged that one
may consult the contents with a minimum of labor are two crowning features
of any volume. They reveal a systematic as well as a constructive intelli-
gence on the part of the author, and mark the boundaries between chaos
and clearness. It is with this feeling that botanists look back to Linnseus,
not so much for the originality of his research as for his gift of order, by
means of which the unclassified botanical observations of two centuries were
reduced to a system. It matters not that this system perished almost in a
generation; it served a purpose in its own day, and made progress possible
to those who had previously been wandering over a boundless sea with
neither stars nor sun to guide them. Linnaeus is remembered, not because
of his research, but because of his arrangement of existing knowledge in a
usable form.

In spite of his blunders (for he was not free from them), in spite of his
arbitrary substitutions of his own work for the clearer work of others, in spite
of the fact that he emphasized system at the expense of the broader principles
of comparison, and withal contributed to the fixing, for five generations,
the dogma of constancy of specific characters, — botanists will always regard
Linnaeus as one of the truly great. He was the "father of botany," not
even its elder brother. He was not the author of binomial nomenclature,
for that originated before Linnaeus was born; he was the first who was able
to look at the existing knowledge of plant life with some degree of perspective,
and he reduced that knowledge to a system, that botany might later become
a science.

LuciEN M. Underwood, Committee.

80 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

New York Entomological Society.

IN MEMORY OF CAROLUS LINN^US, 1707-1778.

The name of Linnseus, the illustrious naturalist who first pointed out
the real utility of some system by which the great kingdoms of nature could
be systematically arranged, is known to the whole civilized world.

Linnseus was not only a naturalist of most accurate observation, but of a
philosophical mind, and upon this depended in a great degree the unpar-
alleled influence which he exercised upon the progress of every branch of
natural history.

If we consider the difficulties which beset his early scientific career, the
limited number of collections of animals and plants at his command, we must
admit that the merit which his contemporaries awarded him was very
justly earned.

Among the important services which he rendered to science was the
creation of a natural system of classification and the introduction of a more
precise nomenclature, which in the main is followed to-day.

While quite young he received his first inspiration for natural history
in his father's garden, A\'hich was planted with many rare shrubs and flowers.
Those sparks which were kindled in the early part of his life at last burst
into such a flame of intensity, that the marks are indelibly left upon the
sciences.

Entomology owes much to the work of this great man.

In his "Systema Naturae" (tenth edition), he divided the insects into
seven orders, as follows : Coleoptera, Hemiptera, Lepidoptera, Ncuroptera,
Hymenoptera, Diptera and Aptera.

The modern orders Forficulidae and Orthoptera were placed with the
Coleoptera; the order Thysanoptera, with the Hemiptera. The order
Neuroptera included the modern orders Ephemerida, Plecoptera, Isoptera,
Corrodentia, Platyptera, Neuroptera, Mecoptera, Trichoptera and Odonata.
The order Aptera contained all the insects without wings or elytra, except
the females of Mutillidse, including also those arthropods which form to-day
the classes of Arachnida and Myriapoda. Each order contained a small
number of genera which were not arranged into families.

Of the many insects described by him, about three liundred species
occur in the United States, most of which were originally described from
Europe, and some from South America. Of the different orders repre-
sented, Linnseus described seven species of Neuroptera, four species of
Odonata, twelve species of Orthoptera, twenty-seven species of Hemiptera,

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US

81

a hundred species of Coleoptera, fifty species of Diptera, twenty-eight
species of Hymenoptera and sixty-six species of Lepidoptera.

The New York Entomological Society appreciates this opportunity of
paying tribute to the memory of the man through whose wonderful far-sight
and scientific attainment we are better able to understand the great system
of nature.

C. W. Leng, President.

H. G. Barber, Secretary.

INSECTS DESCRIBED BY LINN^US WHICH ARE KNOWN TO OCCUR

IN NORTH AilERICA.^

Hymenoptera.

Rhodites rosae
Rhyssa persuasoria
Chalcis minuta
Pteromalus pupamm
Formica fusca

rufa
Lasius niger

Odontomachus hsematodes
Tetramorium csespitum
Monomorium pharaonis
Sphaerophthalma occidentalis
Pompilus tropicus
Chalybion CEeruleum
Sphex ichneumonea

Sphex permsjdvanica
Oxybelus uniglumis
Monobia quadridens
Polistes canadensis
" caroiinus
" annula,ris
Vespa crabro

" maculata

" rufa

" vulgaris
Coslinxyz quadridentata
Bombus caroiinus

" hortorum
Apis mellifera

Lepidoptera.

Danais plexippus
Heliconius charitonius
Agraulis vanillse
Vanessa antiopa
Pyrameis atalanta
Victorina steneles
Anartia jatrophae
Ageronia feronia
Diadema misippus
Calephelis csenius
Leptalis melite
Catapsilia eubule
philea

Cosmosoma auge
Utetheisa omatrix
Phraginatobia fuliginosa
Euplexia lucipara
Dyptergia scabriuscula
Pyriphila pjTamidoide^

" tragopoginis

Perodroma oculta
Scoliopterix libatrix
Plusia culta
Ophiderus matcma
Erebus odora
Euproctis chrysorrhaea

' Contributed by the New York Entomological Society,

82

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Papilio ajax

" philenor

" polydamus

" mackaon

" troilus

" turnus

" glaucus
Pamphila comma
^Uopus tantalus

" ixion
Triptogon lugubris
Choerocampa tersa
Argeus labruscaj
Pachylia ficus
Pholus vitis
Pseudosphiiix tetrio
Dilophonota ello
Phlegothontius Carolina
Sphinx pinastri
Samia cecropia

Bombyx mori
Hydria undulata
Eustroma papulata
Rheumaptera hastata
" tristata

Philobia notata
Eramis def oil aria
Anagoga pulveraria
Zeuzera pyrina
Sesia culiciformis
" tipuliformis
Diaphamia hyalinata
Pyrausta octomaculata
Pyralis farinalis
Crambus puscuellus
Calleria mellonella
Ophomia sociella
Orneodes hexadactyla
Olethreutes hartmanniana
Carpopapsa pomonella

Coleoptera.

Cicindela Carolina
" Virginia

Elaphrus riparius
Blethisa multipunctata
Loricera ccerulescens
Bembidium ustulatum

" 4-maculatum

Casnonia pennsylvanica
Eretes sticticus
Dytiscus marginalis
ITydrobius fuscipes
Sphseridium scarabseoides
Cercyon melanocephalum

" unipunctatum
Silpha americana

" opaca
Staphylinus erji;hropterus
Tachyporus chrysomelinus
Conosoma littoreum
Hippodamia 13-punctata
Coccinella trifasciata
" sangiiinea

Adalia bipimctata
Harmonia 14-guttata
Chilocorus cacti

Ptinus fur

Emobius mollis

Sitodrepa panicea

PhaniEus carnifex

Aphodius fossor
" erraticus

" fimetarius
" granarius

Trox scaber

Polyphylla occidentalis

Pelidnota punctata

Dynastes tityus

Cotinis nitida

Euphoria inda

Mallodon melanopus

Prionus imbricomis

Hylotrupes bajulus

Achryson surinamum

Tragidion coquus

Leptura sexmaculata

Lagochirus araneiformis

Crioceris asparagi
" 12-punctatus

Adoxus obscurus
" vitis

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US

83

Hyperaspidius trimaculatus
Silvanus surinamensis
Typhoea fumata
Dermestes lardarius
Attagenus pellio
Anthrenus scrophulariae

" musseorum

Hister bimaculatus
Carpophilus hemipterus
Epuraea aestiva
Nitidula bipustulata

" rufipea
Omosita colon
Latridius minutus
Tenebriodes mauritaoica
Peltis ferruginea
Cyphon padi
Alaus oculatus
(Dorymbites tesselatus
" cruciatus

Ellychnia corrusca
Photinus pyralis
Buprestis aurulenta
Lamphrohiza splendida
Necrobiaviolacea

Prasocuris Phellandrii
Chrysomela philadelphica
Gastroidea polygoni
Lina lapponica
Gonioctena pallida
Phyllodecta vulgatissima
Tiirhabda tomentossa
Crepidodera rufipes
" Helxines

" Modeeri

Bruchus pisorum
" chinensis
Blaps mortisaga
Unis ceramboides
Tenebrio molitor
Nacerdes melanura
Brachyderus incanus
Otiorhynchus ovatus
EUeschus bipunctatus
Clonus scrophulariae
Cryptorhynchus lapathi
Rhinoncus pericarpius
Brenthus anchorago
Rhynchophorus palmarum
Calandra oryzae

Hemiptera.

Pachycoris fabricii
Euthyrhynchus floridanus
Mormidea ypsilon
Euschistus ictericus
Nezara vividula
Edessa arabs
Leptoglossus phyllopus
" balteatus

Ligyrocoris sylvestris
Emblethis arenarius
Largus succinctus
Dysdercus andrese
Leptopterna dolobrata
Lygus pratensis

Trichocera regelationis
Xiphura atrata
Chironomus pedellus
" plumosus

Capsus ater
Monalocoris filicis
Halticus apterus
Acanthia lectularia
Coriscus ferus
Ai-ilus cristatus
Heza acantharis
Zelus longipes
Reduvius personatus
Salda littoralis

" saltatoria
Corixa striata
Lygus pabulinus

Diptera.

Eristalis tenax
Syritta pipiens
Gastrophilus hsemorrhoidalis
" nasalis

84

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Orthocladius barbicomis
Cricotopus tremulus
Tanypus monilis
Culex pipiens
Scatapse notata
Simulius reptans
Hermetia illucens
Sargus cuprarius
Microchrysa polita
Tabanus mexicanus
Anthrax moris
Bombylius major
Scenoppinus fenestralis
Laphira gilva
Erax sestuans
Leucozona lucorum
Lasiophthicus pyrastri
Syrphus ribesii
Sphaerophoria seripta
Sericomyia lappona
Doliosyrphus neniorum

Oestrus oris
ffidemagena tarandri
Melanophora roralis
Cynomyia mortuorum
Calliphora vomitaria
Lucilia xsesor
Pyrellia cadaverina
Musca domestica
Stomoxys calcitrans
Hamalomyia canicularis
Anthomyia pluvialis
" radicum

Scatophaga stercoraria
Tetanocera umbrarum
Scaptera nibrans
Themira patris
Piophila casei
Scyphella flava
Hippobosca equina
Ornithomyia avicularia
Melaphagus ovinus

Forficula auricularia
Labia minor
Blatta germanica
Stylopyga orientalis
Periplaneta americana
Pycnoscelus surinamensis

Orthoptera.

Stagmomatis Carolina
Achurum brevicomis
Dissosteira Carolina
Cyrtophyllus perspicillatus
Conocephalus triops
Gryllus domesticus

Trithemis umbrata
Tramea Carolina

Odonata.

Libellula quadrimaculata
iEschna juncea

Clothilla pulsatoria
Csecilius pedicularis

Chauliodes pectinicomis

Corredontia.

Psocus sexpunctatus

Platyptera.

Corydalus cornutus

Limnophilus rhombicus
" griseiis

Trichoptera.

Leptocerus niger

BICENTENARY OF LINN^US 86

The Staten Island Association of Arts and Sciences.

It has been said by Taine that "every book and every man may be
reviewed in five pages, and those five pages in five Hnes." On this occasion,
however, we are not asked to review the Hfe or the books of the man in whose
honor we are assembled, but to testify as briefly as may be to our appreciation
of his work and what this work has meant to his posterity. Such a task is
different from that which the reviewer is ordinarily called upon to perform;
and to do it justice in words, within a reviewer's recognized limitations,
would be impossible in connection wuth the name of Linnaeus. Fortunately,
however, words are not necessary, and indeed are superfluous, where this
appreciation is so clearly demonstrated in the fact that we accept the prin-
ciples which he formulated, and pursue the methods which were his, in all
of our scientific activities. By merely recognizing and calling attention to
this fact, we show our respect for the man and v.iiat he has wrought far
better than by even the most earnest and sincere attempt to express our
sentiments in words.

Consciously or unconsciously the influence of Linnseus is felt by all
modern scientific workers. System, or rather the ability to systematize,
is the key to progress in all lines of human endeavor; and science in particular
owes its present commanding position to those who have recognized and
applied the principles of Linnaeus in their work, and v/ho have accepted
and applied his rules for the nomenclature of natural objects.

Linnaeus was pre-eminently a systematist, and it was this habit of mind,
more than an}i;hing else, wdiich raised him above his contemporaries in
science. Without his masterly ability to co-ordinate and arrange his work
in logical sequence and coherent groupings, his great powers of observation
would have lacked completeness. This ability was the special characteristic
which enabled him to revolutionize the scientific work of his age and to
influence so profoundly all that has followed.

To Linnaeus may well be applied the words of Bourget: "In life every-
thing is unique, and nothing happens more than once."

Arthur Hollick, Delegate.

New York State Museum.

Linn^'s contributions to systematic biology are brilliantly exemplified
by one of his species of fossil brachiopods, the Anomites reticularis. No
organism which ever appeared in the long history of the earth has had a

86 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

career so noteworthy for the stability of its specific characters. It made its
d^but in the Midsilurian era, and thence onward it survived through the
long ages of the Devonian and into the Carboniferous, without at any time
departing from the specific type.

Anomites reticularis stands as the ideal of conservatism, the very shib-
boleth of heredity. Nature's ultimate expression of stability in the organic
world. Its life was the longest that ever fell to the lot of organic species;
its period beheld the rise and fall of many another race ; an endless procession
of creations saluted it and passed on, as we to-day, after two hundred
years, salute the great Swede, and pass on to join the multitude.

John M. Clarke, Director.

The BufEalo Society of Natural Sciences.

The Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences, in expressing its thanks to your
honorable Society, and its appreciation of its privilege in being permitted
by your courteous invitation to share in your celebration of the two hundredth
anniversary of the birth of Carl von Linne, desires to add its tribute of
praise to the memory of that great reformer in the work of natural science.

The world must ever be grateful to Linnaeus for the wonderful knowledge,
born of close and accurate observation, and for the clear vision and admirable
judgment which enabled him to index the book of Nature, to substitute order
for confusion, and, by the judicious simplicity of the laws laid down by him
in his methods of classification, to convert, what before his time had been
chaotic, into the orderly ways that characterize the modern systematic
study of botany and biology.

To him and to his work we turn as the starting-point for these scientific
studies which since his day have been so nobly developed by those who have
been his successors.

Though his system may have been superseded by the philosophical
conclusion of other famous workers in botanical science during the past two
centuries, the revolution which he wrought in that great department of
nature study, the lucidity and simplicity of the reforms in method which he
first proposed, have crowned him as one of the greatest leaders known to
the annals of science, and as such we honor and revere his memory.

We ask you to accept our felicitations on this interesting occasion.

T. Guilford Smith, President.
Carlos E. Cummings, Secretary.

BICENTENARY OF LINNMUS 87

The American Philosophical Society.

The American Philosophical Society held at Philadelphia for Promoting
Useful Knowledge sends cordial greetings to the New York Academy of
Sciences on the occasion of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary
of the birth of Carolus Linnaeus.

Out of the mechanical and inorganic systems of ancient and mediaeval
times this great Swedish naturalist constructed an organized system, which,
assisted by the binomial nomenclature, established order and system in the
natural sciences. This system has guided clearly the mind of man in the
classification of natural objects, and has made the name of its author
immortal.

In the year 1770 The American Philosophical Society, in recognition
of the valuable services Carolus Linnaeus rendered to science, elected him
to its membership, and now, a hundred and thirty-seven years later, this
Society takes pleasure in uniting with the New York Academy of Sciences
in doing honor to his memory.

Signed and sealed on behalf of The American Philosophical Society
held at Philadelphia for Promoting Useful Knowledge.

Edgar F. Smith, President.
J. Minis Hays, Secretary.

The National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.O.

I am directed by President Ira Remsen of the National Academy of
Sciences to convey the greetings and congratulations of the National Acad-
emy on this occasion of the celebration of the two hundredth anniversary
of the birth of Linnaeus. I desire to present a brief appreciation of Linnaeus
from the standpoint of comparative anatomy and classification of the
mammalia.

The period of Linnaeus was that of his active scientific life, between 1730
and 1795. Linnaeus did not introduce the term "Mammalia" until the
tenth edition of the "Systema" (1758). In following the suggestions of
Ray, Bernard de Jussieu, and, it is also claimed, of Blumenbach, he sepa-
rated the hairy quadrupeds, the manatees and whales, as a single class,
noting among the distinctive characters the position of the mammae and the
hairy covering. His education as a physician qualified him to define the
class through the internal anatomical characters, — the heart, the lungs,
the sense organs, — as well as through external characters. In arranging

88 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the mammals he sought for natural groupings, and endeavored to find the
hidden bonds of structural affinity as indicated by comparative anatomy,
although he did not recognize that the real basis of affinity is to be found in
kinship of evolution from similar ancestral forms.

His scientific independence and genius were indicated especially by his
inclusion of man with the apes and monkeys in the order Primates. It was
a mark of genius that Linnaeus felt the force of the anatomical likeness of
man to his lower relatives and that he had the courage to definitely ally him
with them from a strictly zoological view-point. This is the very starting-
point of all modern philosophy, that man is linked by ties of blood kinship
to the whole organic world.

That Linnaeus's system is based in part on adaptive resemblances or
analogies, rather than on structural affinities or homologies, is not surprising,
because it is only recently that naturalists have been able to distinguish
analogies from homologies.

Henry Fairfield Osborn, Delegate.

The Smithsonian Institution of Washington, D.O.

The Smithsonian Institution, uniting with the New York Academy of
Sciences in its appreciation of Carl von Linne, cordially accepts its invitation
to participate in exercises commemorative of the two hundredth anniversar}'
of the birth of the great Swedish naturalist.

The Smithsonian Institution, in response to the invitation to take part in
the Academy's celebration of the bicentenary by an appreciative record of
the work of von Linn6, needs only to recall the great impulse which he gave
to natural science by his industry and methods, and the facility for expression
of facts by his binomial system of nomenclature. But the philosophic
generalization which was recorded in the name of Mammalia may be espe-
cially recalled as the greatest morphological triumph of the Linnsean era.

Chas. D. Walcott, Secretari/.

The Biological Society of Washington, Washington, D.C.

The Biological Society of Washington acknowledges with pleasure the
invitation of the New York Academy of Sciences to take part in its cele-
bration of the two hundredth anniversary of the birth of Carl von Linn6,
and is glad to unite in paying fitting tribute to the memory of the man who
is justly regarded as the father of the biological sciences.

BICENTENARY OF LINNJEUS 89

It is, in fact, scarcely possible to overestimate the influence his work and
personality had in shaping the future of botany and zoology; and coming
generations of biologists will continue to rejoice, as we now do, that he laid
the foundations of their science so deep and so broad.

The vocabulary of superlatives to praise his genius has long since been
exhausted; but we who daily and hourly profit by the laws he enunciated
may well pause in our work to exult because, two hundred years ago, Sweden
gave to the v.^orld a light that will continue to shed luster upon her name so
long as the biological sciences exist.

Leonhard Stejneger, President.
Wilfred H. Osgood, Secretary.

The Indiana Academy of Sciences, Indianapolis, Ind.

The criterion by which a man's greatness is judged is his work. If this
gains recognition from his contemporaries, he is successful; if his name
lives to be honored by succeeding generations, his career has been more than
successful, he has achieved fame ; but, if he leaves behind him some piece of
work or the record of some discovery from which his successors reckon time,
his is a distinction which comes to few men, and to which none dare aspire.
Such is the record of Linnaeus. He was a recognized leader among his
contemporaries; his co-ordination of the chaos which then existed in the
natural sciences gave him fame ; and the successful application of the bino-
mial system of nomenclature to animals and plants made his works the point
from which the taxonomist measures time. Nor is the homage the expression
of the whim of a group of hero-worshipers. To-day the system of Linnseus
is discarded by taxonomists, and much of his work is forgotten; but as long
as systematic botany and zoology have their devotees among men of science,
so long will his name be remembered and his fame endure as the one who
first brought the binomial system of nomenclature into general use.

Guy West Wilson, for the Academy.

The Colorado Scientific Society, Denver, Colo.

The Colorado Scientific Society, the oldest and largest scientific associa-
tion of the Rocky Mountain region, sends greeting to its elder sister in the
metropolis of America, and extends congratulations on the successful com-
pletion of the memorial in honor of the world's greatest botanist. How
great must be the power of the savant whose influence can extend over

QO ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

such great gulfs of space and time as those which separate the sage of
Upsala from the naturalists of the Rocky Mountains, the lands of the
midnight sun from the dome of the North American Continent, the dawn
of the eighteenth from that of the twentieth century !

In common with the rest of the scientific world, we are greatly indebted
to him who initiated the modern system of a concise and descriptive nomen-
clature, to him who found "biology a chaos, and left it a cosmos," and to
him who made it possible for finite minds to grasp the thoughts of the Infinite
in the world of life.

Colorado is especially indebted to Linnaeus from the fact that, owing to
the general similarity of our Alpine flora to the plants of the Scandinavian
Alps, a large portion of our mountain plants was originally described by the
father of botany, and so well classified and described, that the notoriety-
seeking, hair-splitting species-makers do not venture to meddle with the
work of the master hand.

We are proud of the fact that on the snowy summits of our higher peaks
grows in abundance the tiny pink-tipped flower which the innate modesty
of the true savant led him to select from all the wealth of the floral world to
perpetuate his name in coming generations.

G. L. Cannon, President.

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CONTENTS OF VOL. XVIII, PART I.

Paqbs

Hovey, Edmund Otis. The Bicentenary of the Birth of Carolus

Linnaeus 1-90

VOL. XVIII

PART II

ANNALS

OF THE

NEW YORK
ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

EDITOR
Edmund Otis Hovey

NEW YORK

PUBUSHED BY THE ACADEMY

1908

NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES.

CrncERs, 1908.

President — Charles F. Cox, Grand Central Station.
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Annals, N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XVIII, Part II, May, 1908.

[Annai^ N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XVIIl, No. 2, Part II, pp. 91-127. January, 1908.]

NEW SPECIES AND GENERA OF THE LEPIDOPTEROUS library
FAMILY NOCTUID.E FOR 1907. PART II.* new v/^».

POT AT

By John B. Smith, Sc.D. oa^ocn.

No branch of zoology has profited more by the explorations and collec-
tions made during the past decade than entomology. Not only have new
species been found in localities collected over for the first time, but, as the
result of more thorough investigation of the fauna of older regions, we have
learned that mere resemblance to species of other faunal regions does
not mean necessarily specific identity. With more abundant material, our
conception of the limits of species became more accurate, and definition
became possible.

In the Canadian northwest a quite distinct noctuid fauna is becoming
gradually known, and in the southwestern portion of our own territory the
canyons are yielding not only specific but also generic types heretofore
unknown.

For some time past, material has accumulated gradually in my collection
which could not be referred satisfactorily to known or described species, —
sometimes in single examples only, sometimes in small series, — and this
has increased gradually to such an extent as to demand a general clearing-up,
although descriptive work of this kind is perhaps the least attractive to the
true student.

Viridemas nov. gen.

Head retracted, small; front with an upright, blade-like corneous process,
which reaches to the end of the short, rough vestiture, and does not modify the
general impression of a fiat head. Palpi very short and weak, not extending beyond
the edge of the front. Tongue weak, not functional. Eyes large, round, naked,
not fringed with lashes. Antennse of normal length; those of the male -n-ith the
segments marked and the projecting angles set with .short bristle-tufts, those of
the female simple. Thorax short, quadrate; collar round, flat; patagia well marked,

' Part I of the descriptive papers for 1907 is in the Transactions of the American Entomo-
logical Societ5', Vol. XXXIII, pp. 125-143, where twenty-nine species are described. In the
present paper forty-seven species are characterized and four new generic terms are proposed.

The types are in most instances in the author's collection at Rutgers College, New Bruns-
wick: a few of them are at the Museum of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences.

I

91

92 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a little uplifted; vestiture scaly with an admixture of flattened hair, forming, pos-
teriorly, a large mass, which is scarcely a definite tuft. Legs short, middle and
hind pairs sub-equal in length; tibise unarmed, not spinulate, in the male clothed
with a mass of rough scales and hair. Abdomen stout, well exceeding the second-
aries; in the female, stout, sub-equal and sub-cylindrical, obtusely terminated,
with a prominent little tuft on the third dorsal segment. Primaries trigonate,
rather broad; apex well marked; outer margin arquate, oblique; hind angle rounded;
venation normal; accessory cell present, giving rise to 7, 8 -I- 9 and 10 from its end.
Secondaries proportionate, with vein 5 obsolescent.

Viridemas galena nov. sp.

Ground-color ashen gray, powdery. Front with an admixture of brown scales.
Collar with an obscure median line and an admixture of bluish-green scales. Patagia
with disk clothed with green scales, and with a blackish sub-marginal line. Pos-
terior scale-mass bronze-brown. Abdomen dark gray, the posterior margins nar-
rowly light gray. Primaries with all the usual maculation traceable, but obscured
by the powdering of dark scales. Basal space green-powdered, and on this the
short, single, black basal line is fairly defined. T.a. line black, single, upright, a
little irregular. T.p. line single, black, slender, discontinuous, a little lunulate,
well exserted over the cell and almost as much incurved below, followed in the
sub-median interspace by a conspicuous greenish- white blotch, which is the most
obvious feature in the maculation. There is a broken, black median line, which
extends along the inner margin of the reniform, and below it to the margin. S.t.
line whitish, diffuse, powdery, discontinuous, partly defined inwardly by black
scales, which give the line a jagged appearance. A series of black terminal lunules
is followed by a pale line at base of fringes. Claviform a broad, black-ringed loop,
extending about one-third across the cell and as broad as long. Orbicular large,
round, gray, ringed by black scales, a little darker centered. Reniform large, gray,
not defined above or below. Secondaries gray, with a dark, lunate terminal line.
Beneath, gray, powdery, with a broad, diffuse exterior line and a lunate diseal spot,
which tends to become obscure on the primaries.

Expands 1.16-1.32 in. = 29-33 mm, ^

Habitat: Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, VII, 30; Palmerly, Cochise
County, Arizona, VII.

Two males and one female, in fair condition. The males are purchased
specimens from my oAvn collection, the female is from the collection of the
Brooklyn Institute. A perfect, fresh specimen will show undoubtedly a
considerably greater admixture of green, and, on the other hand, in old
specimens the green tends to become dull and to mingle with the gray base
so as to become inconspicuous except under a lens.

Meleneta nov. gen.

Eyes hairy, without overhanging lashes. Head moderate or rather small,
applied very closely to the thorax; front very flat, quadrate, clothed with short.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 93

divergent, hairy vestiture. Palpi very short, straight, extending scarcely beyond
the frontal margin; second joint with long hair below; third joint as long as second;
cylindrical, truncate. Tongue functional, well developed. Antennae of male thick-
ened, the joints marked by impressed rings, without vestiture of any kind. Thorax
quadrate, rather small; collar round, not produced; patagia well defined; vestiture
coarse hair, not forming obvious tufts. Legs rather short; tibiae clothed with dense,
long, coarse hair, not armed or spinulated Abdomen with long tufts of fine hair
laterally at base, and with small, indefinite dorsal tuftings. Primaries trigonate;
costa arched; apex marked; outer margin arquate, decidedly oblique; hind angle
obtusely rounded: veins 7 to 10 out of the end of the elongate accessory cell; 7 and
10 from the lower and upper angle respectively; 8 and 9 on a stalk from the middle,
between the two. Secondaries with vein 5 as strong as the others, out of the cross-
vein not far removed from 4.

This is a genus related to Raphia, with similar wing and body structure;
differing in the antennee, character of vestiture, and absence of the charac-
teristic tuftings. Only males are at hand, unfortunately, and the above
characterization is drawn from that sex alone.

Meleneta antennata nov

sp.

Deep bluish gray, the markings black or blackish. Head with vertex black;
collar black-tipped; edges of patagia and dorsum black-edged. Antennse deep
chrome-yellow. Primaries with the normal marking well defined. Basal line black,
geminate, included space gray, and with a gray patch just outside. T.a. line gemi-
nate, outer portion most obvious, almost upright, accompanied by a paler gray
shade. T.p. line less definitely marked, geminate, the inner portion reduced to
scattered black scales, the outer portion more continuous, but diffuse and irregularly
defined, with an even outcurve over the cell and almost straight below. Median
shade blackish, diffuse, darkening the space between the ordinary spots. S.t. line
very irregular, pale, preceded by a black shading, which is best marked on the costa
and below vein 2. There is a narrow, black terminal line, and the fringes are con-
colorous. There is no obvious claviform, but there is a little jog in the t.a. line
where it should be, and beyond is a rusty brown patch that extends to the median
shade. Orbicular small, round, with a distinct black ring and an equally distinct
black central dot. Reniform rather large, oblique, narrow, centrally a little con-
stricted, narrowly black-ringed, gray with a white central line. Secondaries white,
with a blackish terminal line which extends from the apex halfway to the inner
angle. Beneath, primaries blackish, costal and outer margin with white powder-
ings; secondaries white, costal margin with black powderings, a blackish terminal
line from apex halfwaj' to the inner angle.

Expands 1.25-1.40 in. = 31-35 mm.

Hahilat: Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, VII, 30; Palmerly, Cochise
County, Arizona, VIII.

Two males, in good condition; one of them a purchased specimen, the
collector unknown; the other from the collection of the Brooklyn Institute,

94 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

taken by Mr. Carl SchsefTer. The species is quite characteristic, and I am
sure that I have seen it in another collection.

Acronycta othello nov. sp.

Ground-color whitish ash-gray with sooty black shades and markings. Head,
vertex black except at sides. Collar mostly black or sooty. Disk of thorax and
margins of patagia black or sooty. Abdomen smoky gray above, whitish below;
ba.sal tuftings black or sooty; edges of segments narrowly white. Primaries with a
broad basal space rather evenly washed ^vith thin blackish over a bluish-gray base.
T.a. line geminate, black, moderately outcurved and oblique, and ^ith outcurves
iu the interspaces. T.p. line geminate, black; outer line most distinct, denticulate,
with well-marked outward teeth on the veins; as a whole, well curved over cell and
deeply drawn in below. There is no obvious s.t. line. The outer part of the median
space above median vein is filled with blackish, and below this vein the entire space
is sooty black, but not contrasting or intense. The outer part of the \\ing is gray, the
veins blackish-lined, and a sooty black streak from t.p. line to hind angle just below
vein 2. The fringes are cut with sooty brown on the interspaces. Orbicular a
small black circle which may be obscured by a shading from the t.a. line. Reni-
form moderate or small, lunate, incomplete, obscured by the median shade. Second-
aries in the male white, in the female washed with smoky gray. Beneath, whitish,
powdery, the primaries darker (darker in the female than in the male) ; secondaries
with a small, blackish discal spot. Legs smokj', annulate, with white at the joints.

Expands 1.75 in. = 44 mm.

Habitat: San Diego, Cal., Sept. 15.

One male and one female, in good condition; from Mr. Frank A.
Merrick. The species is allied to perdita, but is obviously distinct by the
absence of basal streaks and by the soft gray and black shadings.

Acronycta lepetita nov. sp.

Ground-color pale bluish gray with an olivaceous shading. Palpi black at sides,
a black dot at base of antennae. Primaries with black basal streak extending to the
t.a. line; a slight spur inferiorly at about the middle, a longer narrow branch on the
upper edge, which reaches the t.a. line. A slender black streak crosses the t.p.
line in the sub-median interspace, and extends to the outer margin. The basal line
is indicated by an olivaceous costal spot. T.a. line geminate, olivaceous gray, very
oblique, so as to reach the inner margin almost at middle. T.p. line geminate,
outer line black, included space whiter than ground, somewhat squarely exserted
over the cell and only moderately incurved below. S.t. space beyond the t.p. line
is more olivaceous shaded, and this is best marked on the cost a and over the black
streak above anal angle. A series of terminal black points on the %eins. Median
shade ob\nous on costa, oblique over the reniform, which it darkens, and then lost.
Orbicular oval, oblique, concolorous, narrowly outlined bj' black scales. It may or
may not touch the reniform; but, when it does, the junction forms an obvious,
curved black mark. Reniform large, broadly lunate, somewhat irregular, a little

SMITH, NEW NOCTUIDM 96

dusky, incompletely outlined by blackish scales. Secondaries smoky, paler at base,
the fringes whitish. Beneath, whitish, the primaries smoky on disk; both wings
with discal marks and more or less obvious extra-median lines.
Expands 1.05-1.10 in. = 26-28 mm.

Habitat: Esper Ranch, Brownsville, Tex.

One male and one female, in good condition; from the collection of the
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The species is allied to vinnulu
and paupercula, but is smaller than either and much more delicately marked.
Comparatively, also, the primaries of the new species are shorter and broader.

Noctua larga nov. sp.

Head and collar bright rusty brown, the head darker in shade. Thorax brown
with a more or less marked rusty tinge. Primaries gray-brown with a reddish tinge,
varying in the specimens. All the lines single, punctiform. Basal line marked
only on costa and in the cell. T.a. line with black venular spots and a scattering
of black scales that marks the line across the costal region. T.p. line even, marked
by distinct black dots on the veins, in course parallel to the outer margin. S.t.
line wanting. A series of black, inter-spatial terminal dots. Claviform vaguely
indicated by scattered black scales. Orbicular indicated by a few black scales, or
altogether wanting. Reniform marked by a black dot and a variable number of
black scales; not complete, or even so outlined as to make out a definite form, in
any case. Secondaries pale at base, outwardly dusky, darker throughout in the
female. Beneath, primaries smoky, secondaries whitish, both darker in the female.

Expands 1.80-2.10 in. = 45-52 mm.

Habitat: Palmerly, Cochise County, Arizona, August; Huachuca
Mountains, Arizona, June 16.

Three males and one female, in good condition; from the Museum of the
Brooklyn Institute. The specimens were taken by Mr, Carl SchajfTer,
who says they were commonly found under shelter, much as our clandestina
are sometimes found in large numbers. There are other rubbed examples
in the Museum collection; but all seem to be very much alike. The large
size and simple markings, allied to those of clandestina, distinguish the
species.

Rhizagrotis acclivis Morr., Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist., N.Y., XI, 93, Agrotis,
1875; reclivis Dyar, Jour. N.Y. Ent. Soc, XV, 106, Rhizagrotis, 1907.

Mr. Morrison's specimen came from New York and the type is in the
Tepper Collection. About the same time, Dr. Harvey described Agrotis
opaca, from Texas, and in 1890 I recorded my belief that the two gentlemen
had named the same species. I had, then and later, examples from Texas,

96 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Arizona and Colorado, and, as the type of maculation and structure was
unusual for the eastern fauna, I questioned whether the locality of the
specimen in the Tepper Collection might not be erroneous. An examination
of Dr. Harvey's type in the British Museum confirmed my belief; and in my
Catalogue of 1903 (Bull. 44, U.S. Nat. Mus., 79) I cited the two names as
referring to the same species, and gave the New York locality with an " ( ?)."
Until 1907 I did not see another eastern example, though I had a number
from southwestern localities. In a miscellaneous lot received from Dr.
Dyar for determination, there was an example which I named acclivis,
and to which I appended the note quoted by Dr. Dyar: "The first authentic
specimen I have seen from this region. It indicates that the Nev/ York
locality which I questioned in my Catalogue may have been correct, or it
may indicate two very similar species which I have not had material enough
to discriminate."

Dr. Dyar did have material to discriminate, and he gives the differences
between the eastern and the southwestern forms; but in giving a name he
re-describes the eastern form that served Morrison as a type, and therefore
creates a synonym merely. I assume that Dr. Dyar is correct in determining
that there are two species, though I have not been able to verify that point;
but, if this is so, it simply means that Dr. Harvey's name must be restored
to the list and that the southwestern specimens now labeled acclivis Morr.
in collections must be re-labeled opaca Harvey.

Euxoa cocklei nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries dull brown, varying from chocolate to smoky, and
more or less irrorated with black. Collar with a more or less marked black median
line. Disk of thorax and patagia with a sparse admixture of yellow scales. Prima-
ries with all the maculation traceable, and usually v/ell written. Basal line geminate,
black, included space yellowish. T.a. line geminate, included space yellow, the
edgings black; upright to median vein outcurved in the space below and outwardly
bent below vein 1. T.p. line geminate, inner portion lunulate, not well marked,
outer portion hardly distinct; the included space yellowish, variably marked and
not always continuous; in course moderately outcurved over the cell and then par-
allel with outer margin. S.t. line a little irregular, broken, yellomsh, sometimes
reduced to scattered yellow scales. A series of dusky terminal lunules, which are
rarely distinct. There is a tendency to a darkening below the median vein, between
the basal and t.a. line, and in one example there is a distinct black line. Claviform
moderate, black-bordered. Orbicular round or oval, moderate in size, with a nar-
row black edging within which is a ring of whitish scales. Reniform moderate in
size, kidney-shaped, edged with black scales, then with an inner (more or less
incomplete) border of yellowish; the spot sometimes darker inferiorly. Secondaries
•smoky yellowish, almost uniform, with an obscure dusky lunule. Beneath, dull

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 97

smoky; secondaries more yellowish and powdery; all wings with an outer shade
band and discal mark, less evident on primaries.
Expands 1.15-1.35 in. = 29-34 mm.

Habitat: Kaslo, B.C., July 27.

Two males and five females; from Dr. James Fletcher, collected by
Mr. J. W. Cockle, after whom the species is named. All the examples are
in good condition and no two are alike. The two males are smaller than
all the females, although the larger of the two is almost as large as the smallest
female. So the males are also darker and less distinctly marked, the orna-
mentation in one case, indeed, being scarcely traceable. In all the females
all the markings are at least traceable, and in one case every feature is
complete, and, in addition, the s.t. space is a little paler than the rest of the
wing. The t}'pe of maculation is similar to insulsa, but there is no darkening
of the cell and the wings are also too powdery. There are no strong positive
characters, and in Hampson's Tables it falls between submolesta and pro-
rellaris, neither of them American species.

Euxoa criddlei nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries mahogany-brown; the head and thorax darker,
without markings; primaries with all the transverse maculation lost, except the s.t.
line, which is traceable by a line of pale scales edging the darker, more blackish ter-
minal space. No trace of claviform. Orbicular faintly indicated by a blackish
powdering. Reniform faintly outlined by scattered pale scales interiorly filled with
blackish. Secondaries dull yellowish becoming smoky at outer margin, with a dark
discal lunule. Beneath, smoky, powdery; primaries darker; all wings with a dis-
cal lunule. Abdomen dull smoky.

Expands 1.40-1.50 in. = 35-37 mm.

Habitat: Aweme, Manitoba, Aug. 24, 25, Sept. 4.

One male and two females, in good condition ; from Dr. James Fletcher,
collected by Mr. Criddle, after whom the species is named. This is a very
simply marked form, and in fact, at first sight there appear to be no markings
at all, so feebly are they indicated. In wing form the species is like pastora-
lis, with which it will be most naturally associated in the list. In Hampson's
Tables the species would fall in next to stigmatilis Sm., to which the new
species has but a slight resemblance.

Euxoa quinta nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries dull ashen gray, the entire surface with uniformly
placed brown irrorations, which are quite conspicuous under the glass, and give a
soft shading to the insect. Transverse maculation, except s.t. line, brown or black-

98 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

ish, broken, more or less lost. S.t. line pale, rather conspicuously relieved by a
smoky preceding shade. Basal line marked by a geminate spot on costa and some-
times by a dot on median vein. T.a. line geminate, outer line best marked, evenly
oblique, with small outcurves in the interspaces; always broken. T.p. line gemi-
nate, only a little bent over the reniform, parallel to outer margin; outer line a
series of venular points; inner tending to becomie diffuse. A broad, diffuse, obscure
median smoky shade. S.t. line irregular, complete or nearly so, emphasized by
white scales. A series of small black terminal dots and a narrow line at base of
fringes. Orbicular moderate, round or oval, incompletely marked by whitish scales.
Reniform moderate, kidney-shaped, outlined by a vague yellowish ring, inferiorly
black-filled. Secondaries smoky fuscous, more yellowish at base, with a dark discal
lunula and pale fringes. Abdomen pale ashen gray. Beneath, primaries smoky
with a powdery pale-gray border, an extra-median line marked on costa, and an
obscure discal spot; secondaries pale gray, powdery, with a conspicuous black dis-
cal line and an incomplete extra-median band, beyond which the marginal area is
blackish.

Expands 1.35-1.42 in. = 34-36 mm.

Habitat: High River, Alberta (Mr. Thomas Baird); Kaslo, B.C.,
June 1, 30, July 7, 10 (Mr. J. W. Cockle).

Three males and two females, all in good condition; received from Dr.
James Fletcher. The examples are all very much alike, a slight difference
in the amount of dark filling in the reniform and in the completeness of the
transverse lines being all the variation noted. The species belongs with the
hostoniensis series, but differs from all those previously known to me, in
the dark secondaries of both sexes. It recalls scandens at first sight, but is
much darker than that species throughout.

Euxoa capota nov. sp.

Head dark brown in front, vertex reddish gray, a black line dividing the two.
Collar reddish at base, tip velvety black; a white line between the two. Disk of
thorax reddish gray. Primaries brown ; median space very dark purplish brown,
almost black; costal region to t.p. line whitish; the ordinary spots of the brown
ground-color. A black basal shade margins the costal pale area inferiorly. T.a.
line geminate, black, obsolete on costa, very distinct below it and with an inward
curve at the middle of its course. T.p. line geminate, black, the outer line less
distinct, almost straight from the costa to end of cell and then with a very small
incurve. S.t. line pale, only a little irregular, chiefly defined by the slightly darker
terminal area against the s.t. space, which is the lightest part of the wing. Clavi-
form narrowly outlined in black, incomplete, concolorous. Space between the
ordinary spots black-filled. Orbicular, U-shaped, open to the costal pale area.
Reniform large, incompletely outlined by dark and pale scales, lunate rather than
kidney-shaped. Secondaries smoky brown, with a small, darker discal hmule.
Beneath, reddish gray, powdeiy, with a common outer line and a discal lunule on
all wings.

Expands 1.15-1.30 in. = 29-32 mm.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 99

Habitat: Palmerly, Cochise County, Arizona, July and August.

Eight examples, mostly in good condition, all very much alike and all
females. The reference to Euxoa is in the sense in which that genus is used
by Hampson. The frontal structure in this species is as in Chorizagrotis,
but the body is not depressed. As there are no males, the antennal struc-
ture of that sex cannot be used as a guide, and the generic reference must be
provisional. The species is altogether unlike any other form known to me
from our fauna, and the peculiar course of the median lines should serve as
a means of recognition.

Ufeus electra nov. sp.

Ground-color dull chocolate-brown. Head and thorax with dark hair inter-
mingled. Primaries so densely set with long black hair as to give the whole a
blackish appearance. A black basal streak in the sub-median interspace extends
almost to the middle of the wing. Another streak extends, with little interruption,
through the cell and beyond it to the outer margin. T.a. line lost. T.p. line
outwardly bent from costa, obscure, blackish, with small outward extensions on
the veins. A series of black inter-spatial marks at base of fringes, becoming longer
toward the apex. Secondaries dull yellowish, smoky, with an overlay of black hair;
a distinct discal lunule and a well-marked extra-median shade line. Beneath,
reddish gray, powdery, darker at the margins on primaries; secondaries with an
obvious extra-median line and a distinct discal lunule.

Expands 1.55-1.65 in. = 39-41 mm.

Habitat: Oregon.

Two female examples, without date or name of sender. Evidently
they are electric-light captures, and more or less defective ; but their differ-
ence from the allied forms is obvious. The species is nearest to plicatus
in type of maculation, and it is quite probable that in some specimens, traces
of the discal spots will occur.

TJfeus hulstii nov. sp.

Ground-color rather hght red-brown. Head and thorax without markings.
Primaries with fine black hair, the veins a little darker. T.a. line distinct, single,
blackish, outwardly oblique, with three distinct outward angulations, — one on the
sub-costa, one below the median and the other on vein 1. T.p. line single, black,
followed by a slightly paler shade, evenly and moderately outcurved, with short
outward spurs on the veins. A series of small black terminal dots. Fringes cut
with yellowish. Secondaries silky gray with a reddish tinge. Beneath, very pale
pinkish gray, immaculate.

Expands 1.38-1.42 in. = 34-35 mm.

Habitat: Black Hills, Wyo. ; Stockton, Utah, July 22.

Two male examples. One of them is from the Hulst Collection, with-

100 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

out abdomen, but else in good condition; the other is from Mr. Thomas
Spalding and in good shape. This differs from the other described species,
all of which are represented in my collection by the distinct and rather even
red-brown, and the well-marked median lines. It is perhaps nearest to
satyricus in type of maculation, but differs obviously in color, in the absence
of all trace of ordinary spots, and in the immaculate under side.

Mamestra leomegra nov. sp.

Ground-color blue-gray shaded with smoky, powdered and ornamented with
black. Head with a black line across front. Collar with a black line across middle,
dividing the smoky lower from the ashen upper portion. Thorax mottled with
blue-gray, smoky, white and black, forming no distinct markings. Primaries with
all the maculation obvious, but so obscured and mottled that scarcely any of it is
clear-cut and distinct; the narrow yellowish s.t. line with the prominent black
preceding shades forming the most conspicuous feature of the wing. Basal line
geminate, black, broken, the whitish included space broad and most obvious; a
pair of curved black marks just below the median vein. T.a. line geminate, black-
ish, oblique, outcurved in the interspaces; included space broad, pale. T.p. line
geminate, lunulate, a little irregular, broadly exserted over the cell and a little
incurved below; included space narrower and not so pale as in t.a. line. There is
an obscure, diffuse, smoky median shade, which darkens the outer part of the median
space. S.t. line forms a small W on veins 3 and 4, where the preceding black shad-
ing is less conspicuous than it is above and below. A series of conspicuous black
terminal lunules. Claviform small, concolorous, black-margined. Orbicular, of
good size, broadly and irregularly ovate, oblique, black-margined, a little lighter
than the ground, with a smoky center. Reniform large, lunate, black-edged, out-
wardly with a margin of white scales wthin the black, center smoky, inclosing a
curved gray streak. Secondaries blackish, the outer margin narrowly gray. Be-
neath, gray, powdery; both wings with a conspicuous black discal mark and a more
or less evident extra-median line. The primaries have a narrow whitish outer
border, and in the female this is obvious on the secondaries as well.

Expands 1.90-2.00 in. = 47-50 mm.

Habitat: Grand Lake, N.F., Aug. 28.

Three males and one female, of which only one female is in really good
condition. The specimens were caught at light by Mr. Owen Bryant,
packed dry in cotton, and sent me through Mr. C. W. Johnson of the Boston
Society of Natural History. The species is obviously related to imbrifera,
but is larger and darker throughout, and distinctly more blue-gray in color.
The W of the s.t. line, while small, is distinct. The antennpe of the male
have the joints only a little marked, with little tufts of fine bristles and longer
single cilise. The tuftings appear to be as in imbrifera, but less developed.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUIDjE 101

Mamestra pallicauda nov. sp.

Head and thorax dark brown; abdomen gray, the dorsal tuft at base brown.
Primaries red-brown tending to gray, with black powderings and transverse lines.
Basal line geminate, black, distinct; included space with pale scales; outcurved
in the interspaces, reaching to the sub-median vein. T.a. line geminate, black,
inner portion tending to become lost; outcurved in the interspaces, a little out-
curved as a whole; below vein 1 the included space is white. T.p. line single, black,
irregular, incurved in the interspaces, scarcely clears the reniform; a white lunule
follows that part below the sub-median vein. The median space is very narrow;
and the median shade, which is blackish, runs close to the inner border of the reni-
form across cell, and then close to the t.p. line below it. S.t. line irregular, marked
partly by blackish shadings and spots, and partly by the darker terminal space. A
black terminal line broken by whitish points on the veins, the veins themselves
more or less black-marked. Three white points in costa between t.p. and s.t. lines.
Orbicular obscure, traceable as an indefinite paler brown blotch. Reniform small,
oblique, incompletely outlined, a series of three white dots along the outer edge and
a fourth at the lower inner angle. Secondaries smoky, the veins darker, fringes
tipped with white. Beneath, smoky gray, powdery, with a smoky extra-median
shade and a small dark discal lunule. Tip of abdomen of female obtuse, with a
mass of white fluffy hair arranged so as to form a compact mass.

Expands 1.24 in. — 31 mm.

Habitat: Palmerly, Cochise County, Arizona, July; Huachuca Moun-
tains, Arizona, July 12.

Two female examples, one of them, belonging to the Brooklyn Institute,
in perfect condition; the other, from my own collection, somewhat rubbed.
This is altogether unlike any other species known to me, and eventually
must be removed from Mamestra, to v/hich I have referred it tentatively in
the absence of a male. It belongs to Hadena as limited by Hampson, and
has only a basal tuft on the dorsum of the abdomen; but it agrees with none
of the species that he places in that genus. The cylindrical, squarely trun-
cate abdomen, with its dense tuft of white fluffy hair, is characteristic, and
may indicate some unusual character in the male as well.

Miodera nov. gen.

Eyes moderate in size, round, hairy. Front protuberant, roughened, obtuse,
without processes or plates. Tongue fully developed. Palpi small, oblique, not
reaching to the middle of the front, .\ntennse of male lengthily bipectinated, the
branches decreasing in length toward the tip, the last few joints merely serrate.
Thorax quadrate, heavily clothed with scaly vestiture, forming an obscure anterior
and somewhat more obvious posterior tuft; patagia well marked. Vestiture of
under side dense, somewhat hairy, loose. Legs short and not especially stout,
though the heavy vestiture makes them appear so; anterior tibiae and tarsi without

102 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

special armature; the terminal claws, however, unusually long. Abdomen with a
loose tuft at base, otherwise dorsum untufted. Primaries short, broad, trigonate,
the apices well marked.

Differs from Mamestra chiefly in the very stout body, lengthily pectinated
antennae and protuberant roughened front. I cannot identify it with any
of the genera of Hampson's monographic work.

Miodera stigmata nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries deep dark brown. Head with a scant admixture
of gray and black scales. Collar with a blackish transverse line. Thoracic disk
with an admixture of gray scales, varying in the examples; patagia with a black
sub-margin. Primaries with smoky and blackish shadings variably mixed with
gray, and with a sprinkling of yellow scales that gives a richness of color to the wings.
Basal line black, geminate, interrupted on the sub-costa. A short black basal dash
that just reaches the t.a. line. T.a. Une geminate, black, the included space some-
times lightened by yellow scales, in course outwardly oblique, with three moderate
outcurves. T.p. line geminate, black, abruptly bent out below costa, then almost
parallel with outer margin; the inner line lunulate and usually, at least, traceable
across the wing, the outer more even and usually lost below the cell. S.t. line more
or less yellow, variably defined by darker preceding or foUowng shadings, with a
well-defined W on veins 3 and 4. A lunate black terminal line followed by yellow
venular points at the base of the long interlined fringes. Claviform a small but con-
spicuous black loop. Orbicular round or nearly so, moderate in size, concolorous,
ringed with yellow scales. Reniform large, upright, a little constricted at middle
and expanded below, inferiorly black-filled, the upper half paler, and edged with
yellow scales. Between the spots the cell is darker or even blackish. Secondaries
smoky yellowish, with a discal lunule, a somewhat waved extra-median line and a
distinct blackish terminal line. Beneath, gray, powdery, -s^ith a narrow, distinct
extra-median black shade line crossing both -nings. All wings with a discal spot and
a lunate marginal line. Abdomen like secondaries in color.

Expands 1.04-1.14 in. = 26-28 mm.

Habitat: Witch Creek, Cal., Jan. 12-Feb. 3.

Ten males, in good or fair condition. This is a well-marked and rather
pretty species somewhat resembling Mamestra ectypa, and it does not appear
to vary to any considerable extent.

Tseniocampa macona nov. sp.

Ground-color of head, thorax and primaries, creamy to luteous gray. Head
and thorax without maculation. Primaries more or less powdered with black atoms,
and veins tend to become pale. Basal line geminate, broken, usually marked by
black spots on costa and median vein. T.a. line outwardly oblique, even, of the
ground-color or paler, marked on both sides by black scales so as to define the entire
line in the best case, but so irregularly in others that it may become entirely lost

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 103

beyond the costal area. T.p. line concolorous or a little paler, almost parallel with
outer margin, preceded by black scales or lunules, so variable that the line may be
either completely defined, or almost lost. A black median shade extends obliquely
from costa across the reniform, forms an angle at its lower margin, and extends
obUquely inward to the middle of the inner margin. This shade is usually distinct,
and when it is obscure the median lines are best defined. S.t. line concolorous or a
little paler, a little irregular, defined by a preceding black powdering, which may
extend across the wing or may be confined to the costal region. A series of black
terminal dots in the interspaces. Orbicular concolorous, usually lost, sometimes
defined by a slightly paler ring, then large, ovate, joining the reniform inferiorly.
Reniform large, oblique, broadly oval, pale-ringed, always darker and usually con-
trasting, filled with black powdering. Secondaries whitish with a reddish tinge, a
small dark discal spot, a punctiform, obscure extra-median line, and a series of dark
terminal lunules. Beneath, with a reddish tinge, coarsely black powdered; primaries
with blackish orbicular and reniform and a broken exterior line; secondaries with
dark discal spot and punctiform extra-median line.
Expands 1.36-1.50 in. = 34-37 mm.

Habitat: Witch Creek, Cal., Jan. 30, Feb. 1-14.

TSvo males and two females, var}ung greatly, as indicated in the descrip-
tion. At first sight the species suggests flaviannula; but the male antennas
are not pectinated. They are bristle-tufted, and therefore the species
belongs with alia. Sir George Hampson refers these species to Monima
Hbn.

Tseniocampa bostura nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries dull luteous brown with smoky powderings, which
give the insect a sordid appearance. Primaries with all the markings present, but
not relieved or distinct. Basal fine geminate, blackish, complete, included space
of the ground-color. T.a. line geminate, outwardly obhque, with small outcurves
in the interspaces, outer portion well marked, included space of the ground-color.
T.p. line with a moderate outcurve over cell and an almost even incurve below it,
the inner portion obscurely lanulate, the outer punctiform. A very obscure median
shade through the outer portion of the median space. S.t. line yellowish, narrow,
only a little irregular, preceded by a continuous blackish shade, which darkens the
outer half of the s.t. space. A continuous, slightly waved yellow line at the base of
the fringes. Orbicular not traceable in the specimen. Reniform large, oblique, a
little constricted, blackish-filled, obscurely outlined by yellowish scales. Secondaries
dull whitish at base darkening to a smoky outer margin, the fringes more yellowish.
Beneath, reddish gray, powdery. All wings with a distinct extra-median line and a
small discal spot.

Expands 1.30 in. = 32 mm.

Habitat: Kaslo, B.C.

One male, in good condition; from Dr. James Fletcher. The species
is allied to rufula and indra, but is more sordid and powdery in appearance
than either, while the course of the lines is quite different. The thoracic

104 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

vestiture is thicker and the patagia are much better defined than in the
alHed forms. It is Dr. Fletcher's No. 168.

Taeniocampa fringata nov. sp.

Rusty red-brown darkening to brown-gray. Lower part of front and palpi
crimson. Antennae bright red with a white dot at base. Collar and thorax tending
to become hoary through gray-tipped hair. Primaries tending to an overlay or
powdering of bluish-gray scales, and with a vague irrorate appearance, the macula-
tion never conspicuous and sometimes scarcely traceable. Basal line geminate,
gray-filled, rarely evident. T. a. line geminate, a little darker than the ground, some-
times with gray filling, a very little oblique, and slightly outcurved in the interspaces.
S.t. line brown, geminate, evenly outcurved over the cell and a little incurved belov.-;
included space concolorous; followed on each vein by a short blackish line which is
interrupted by a pale dot, so that there is the appearance of a double dotted line,
which is easily mistaken for the t.p. line. S.t. line pale, obscure, a little irregular,
defined by a slightly darker preceding narrow shade line. A vague median shade
line is traceable below the reniform, parallel to the t.p. line. Claviform barely trace-
able in one example. Orbicular dusky, oblique, elliptical, with narrow yellowish
outline, obvious in most specimens. Pteniform large, upright, a little constricted,
dusky, narrowly ringed with yellow, obvious in all specimens. Secondaries smoky
fuscous with carmine fringes. Beneath, gray with a crimson tinge, powcery. Both
wings with a discal spot and outer hne, which are best marked on secondaries, but
always at least traceable on primaries. The tarsi tend to become narrowly white-
ringed.

Expands 1.24-1.34 in. = 31-33 mm.

Habitat: Monterey County, Cahfornia, March; Santa Cruz Mountains,
CaHfornia.

Five males and two females, all save one in good condition. This is an
ally of prceses and saleppa, and yet more closely of transparens. It is refer-
able to the Perigrapha of Hampson, and has the ridged crest of the species
that stand as Stretchia in our Catalogue. Except in the ground-color,
there is very little variation among the specimens at hand.

Stretchia erythrolita Grt.

Until recently this species has been represented in my collection by a
single male example labeled by Mr. Grote, and agreeing well with his
description and type. In 1906 I received two examples from Pasadena,
taken in March and April, which indicated quite a range of variation, but
wiiich nevertheless were very similar to the typical form. Recently I re-
ceived from San Diego County a series of upwards of thirty examples, taken
in early February, no two of which were alike, the extremes being so far
apart that probably I should have considered them distinct, had I received

SMITH, NEW NOCTUIDM 105

single specimens only of each. In color they vary all the way from uniform
mouse-gray to uniform smoky black, with scarcely a trace of maculation.
The s.t. line is most frequently present and the tendency is to a pale terminal
space, the extreme of this type being a glossy black primary with a contrast-
ing gray terminal space. Then the black breaks up at base and the wing
becomes mottled in every possible intermediate form. In the pale examples,
the reniform tends to become relieved, especially in the males, and in the
extremes this is ringed with yellow, and filled with dark brown. The orbic-
ular is rarely present, but may be as conspicuous as the reniform, though in
only one case is it as well defined.

I have no information as to the habits of the insect ; but it is quite obvious
that it may at times be much more common than the number of specimens
in collections indicates.

Himella rectiflava nov. sp.

Of the usual powdery luteous ground-color, the markings obscure, except for
the conspicuous yellow s.t. line and the scarcely less defined dusky median shade
line. Head and thorax with scattered black powderings only. Primaries, basal
line tracei^ble by the pale included shade and the slightly more dense powderings
at its borders. T.a. line geminate, smoky, included space not paler, with a very
regular and even outcurve from costa to inner margin. T.p. line geminate, tending
to become punctiform, the veins blackish beyond the line and so interrupted as to
give the appearance of geminate dark points; outwardly bent over cell, with the
angle on vein 7, below which the line runs evenly oblique to the inner margin. Me-
dian shade distinct, blackish, a little diffuse, outwardly bent from costa to bottom of
reniform, then evenly oblique to the inner margin. S.t. line conspicuous, yellowish,
preceded by a distinct, even, continuous, narrow brown shade, the following terminal
space darker than the rest of wing. A yellowish crenulated terminal line, from
the points of which pale lines extend across the fringes. No obvious claviform.
Orbicular round, with narrow smoky ring, of ground-color, but not powdery. Reni-
form upright, oblong with rounded corners, concolorous, defined by a narrow dusky
line within which there is a paler ring. Secondaries fuscous, paler at base, fringes
more luteous. Beneath, reddish gray, powdery. Both wings with an extra-median
line; secondaries also with a discal spot.

Expands 1.10 in. = 27 mm.

Habitat: Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, July 30.

One male specimen, in good condition as to wings, somewhat defective
as to antennae, etc. The specimen was received in paper in a purchased
lot, and the collector is unknown. It belongs to Eriopyga of the Hampson
Catalogue, in the series in which the males have ciliated antennae and no
other conspicuous secondary sexual characters.

106 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Orthodes keela nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries red-brown; head with a paler, more yellowish shad-
ing. Secondaries and abdomen smoky. Primaries with all the normal markings
traceable, but none of them distinct or well written. Basal line geminate, smoky,
obscm^e, included space with a few yellowish scales. T.a. line geminate, smoky,
obliquely outcurved, with small outcurves in the interspaces, some pale scales in the
included space over the costal region, the line tending to become obscure below the
middle. T.p. line geminate, blackish, only a httle bent over cell, then almost evenly
parallel with outer margin; inner portion more or less lunulate; outer, punctiform
below costal region. An outwardly curved smoky median shade. S.t. line marked
by scattered yellow scales and by a continuous, narrow, blackish preceding shade,
only a little irregular in course. A broken, yellowish terminal line. Orbicular
small, obscurely outlined by yellowish scattered scales. Reniform small, narrow,
oblique, a little constricted, outlined and partly filled by yellow scales, with a black-
ish superior dot and a dark inferior filling. Secondaries uniformly smoky with a
bronze luster, the fringes more yellowish. Beneath, primaries with disk smoky,
lustrous, the margins yellowish with reddish powderings; secondaries yellowish
with reddish powderings, with a smoky broken outer band and a smoky discal lunule.

Expands 1.07-1.15 in. = 27-29 mm.

Habitat: Palmerly, Cochise County, Arizona, August.

One male and one female, in good condition; from the collection of the
Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The male is the smaller of the
two, more deeply colored and less distinctly marked. The species is an
ally of vecors, and ranges next to it in Hampson's Catalogue, under Eriopyga.
It is narrower winged, however, much more uniformly tinted, with more
even median lines and a different s.t. line. In wing-form it is nearer to
imora Strck., which is darker lustrous, and has the maculation reduced to
a small gray reniform.

Faronta nov. gen.

Eyes haiiy, large, round, globose, not overhung by long cilia. Tongue fully-
developed. Front roughened, slightly protuberant, without processes or excisions.
Palpi straight; temiinal joint very short, poorly developed, not projecting much
beyond front; the second joint with short vestiture. Antennae in male, ciliated;
in female, simple. Thorax convex, rounded; vestiture hairy, forming no tufts,
rather smoothly laid. Legs moderate in length, strong, without spines or other
unusual annature on tibiae or tarsi; tibise in the male more thickly clothed with
hair, but forming no obvious tufts. Abdomen smoothly clothed, without tufts or
fringes of any kind, stout, extending well beyond the hind angle of secondaries.
Primaries elongate, narrow, sub-lanceolate, the apex not acutely drawn out, margin
gently rounded, venation normal. Secondaries proportionate.

Differs from Leucania in the stout convex thorax and long stout abdomen,
as well as the narrow elongate wings. From Neleucania it differs in the

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 107

more robust build throughout, in the more closely appressed vestiture and
the rounded margin and apex of primaries. From Meliana it differs in the
stouter form, less pointed wings, and comparatively simple antennae of the
male. The roughened front may not be peculiar, in the absence of plates
or processes.

Faronta aleada nov. sp.

Head, thorax and abdomen uniform creamy white or grayish tending to yellow-
ish, the head usually most intense in color. Primaries with the disk a faint leaden
gray, costa and internal margin creamy white, median vein pale, and dividing into
pale rays on veins 3 and 4. In the apical region the veins are a little dark marked.
No lines or dark spots on the wing. Secondaries white in both sexes. Beneath,
white; primaries with a tinge of yellow, which is better marked at the margins.

Expands 1.30-1.42 in. ^ 32-35 mm.

Habitat: Brazos, Tex.

One male and three females, all in good condition; from tlie collection
of the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences. The species is entirely
unlike any other of our leucaniids, and agrees with nothing described by
Hampson from the adjoining faunal region. The tendency is for the leaden
gray disk to become rubbed so as to give a uniform creamy appearance.

Anarta Ochs.

The species of this genus are not well represented usually in American
collections, and my own material has been for two years or more eked out
by a collection loaned me by Mr. Philip Laurent of Philadelphia. This
was mostly purchased from Staudinger, and contained a fair series of the
circum-polar species, including those listed as common to the American
and European faunas.

Sir George Hampson's revision of the species drops out several of our
listed names, and adds others, so that I found it desirable to rearrange my
material, and did so v.ith very interesting results.

Three series are recognized : —

I. Antennae of male strongly serrate and fasciculate; fore wings very
narrow.
II. Antennae of male minutely serrate and fasciculate.
III. Antennae of male ciliated.

The first of these series contains only a single species, and is not repre-
sented in our fauna.

The series in which the male antennae are minutely serrate and fascicu-
late, or bristle-tufted, is divided as follows: —

108 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Hind wings white.

Primaries with s.t. hne angled inward in discal fold . . staudingeri

Primaries with s.t. line not so angled.

Primaries with prominent series of dentate black marks

before s.t. line richardsoni

Primaries without such marks before s. t. line . . quadrilunata

Hind wings yellowish leucocycla

Hind wings uniformly suffused with fuscous.

Primaries with the stigmata not filled with blue-gray . etacta

Primaries with the stigmata filled with blue-gray . . membrosa

Staudingeri has not appeared heretofore in our Catalogue; but I found,
on comparing the figure and descriptions carefully, that I had two males, one
from Labrador and one from "British Columbia," which were apparently
the same, and which agreed with the characters given for the species.

Of quadrilunata I have a pair from Colorado, which are properly de-
termined. An example from Laggan may indicate a new form.

Of richardsonii I supposed I had a long series; but I found, to my sur-
prise, that only one nice pair from Labrador answered all the requirements
of Hampson's definition. My Greenland examples received through
Staudinger did not answer at all. The White IMountain examples, which
stand under richardsoni in our collections, had the s.t. line of staudingeri;
and the long suite of specimens from Newfoundland represented yet another
form. They are distinctly yellow-winged, but will not do for leucocycla
at all. The species marked schoenherri in my collection, and to which name
leucocycla has been cited heretofore as a synonym, vras neither one nor the
other.

Using the same characters used by Hampson, in a somewhat different
form, I differentiate the species now before me as follows : —

S.t. line of primaries angulate and dentate.
Secondaries white or nearly so.

Ordinary spots of primaries white-marked, median

line white-shaded staudingeri

No white on primaries, all the pale markings bluish

gray hampa

Secondaries decidedly yellow.

Ground-color blue-gray, terminal space contrastingly

blue-gray flanda

S.t. line of primaries even, or scarcely irregular.

Secondaries Avhite, primaries contrastingly black and
white marked.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 109

T.a. line oblique, outcurved in the interspaces . . . richardsoni
T.a. line angulated on the median vein, then rigidly

oblique to inner margin lanuginosa

Secondaries pale yellowish, primaries smoky brown,

not contrasting.
S.t. line distinct, with preceding dusky shades or spots squara

S.t. line partly obliterate, preceding shades on costa

only quadrilunata

Etacta and memhrosa are left out of consideration here.

Hampa and jlanda are allies of staudingeri, but are larger and darker.
Flanda has decidedly yellow secondaries, and that is its chief superficial
difference from hampa. I might have deemed it racial or varietal, were it
not accompanied by a decided difference in the eyes; those of flanda being
distinctly larger, and decidedly more rounded.

Squara is based on Greenland examples of schosnherri, from which it
differs by the distinctly yellowish secondaries and the totally different type
of transverse lines. I am, of course, assuming that all the names cited by
Hampson to richardsoni are really identical with the form to which he has
applied that name.

The third series, in which the male autennse are ciliated only, is separated
by Hampson as follows: —

Hind wings bright yellow.

Fore wings with the ground-color deep red .... myrtilli

Fore wings with the ground-color blackish.

Fore wings with the reniform white-filled .... cordigera
Fore wings with reniform not white-filled .... mimuli

Hind wings yellowish, tinged with brown impingejis

Hind wings uniform brown phma

Hind wings white, more or less suffused above with fuscous.
Fore wings broad, triangular.

Reniform without whitish annuli ' melanopa

Reniform wuth whitish annuli mimula

Fore wings narrow, elongate.

Fore wings pale olive-gray mausi

Fore wings fuscous zemhlica

Myrtilli Linn, is in our collections as acadiensis Beth., and is listed from
Canada northward. It occurs also in the mountains of Colorado, and I
have never been sure that there was only a single species represented. I
have compared the Colorado examples recently with German specimens.

110 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and am by no means certain that the two are identical. The resemblance
is very close, however, and my material is not sufficient to induce me to
dispute the union.

Cordigera Thumb, is a very sharply-marked species, and I have in my
collection examples from Colorado, Labrador and Germany, which are
practically alike.

Mimuli Behr. is a Californian species unknown to Hampson, and not
represented in my collection. The type has been destroyed in the San
Francisco fire.

Impingens Wlk. — with curta Morr., nivaria Grt. and perpura Morr.
as synonyms — is a purely American species, which differs quite markedly
from the preceding species in general habitus, and comes nearer to Scoto-
gramma in wing-form. I have it from Colorado onl}^; but it is also recorded
from British Columbia.

Phcea Hampson is a new species to our fauna, and quite a close ally, in
appearance, to the preceding. It comes from Victoria Land, Cambridge
Bay, and is not represented in my collection.

Melanopa Thunb., re-described by Packard as nigrolunata, is another
sharply-defined form which is very widely distributed. It occurs in the
United States from -Mount Washington northward, and extends along the
Rocky Mountain chains into New Mexico. My examples are from Col-
orado and Labrador, without very much difference between them.

Miviula Grt. is from New Mexico, and the type is in the Snow Collection.
Professor Snow was good enough to send it to me for examination nearly
fifteen years ago, and since that time I have not seen another example, so
far as I know.

Laerta Smith was not known to Hampson when he wrote, and differs
from melanopa in the more sordid fuscous color throughout and by the much
reduced whitish area of secondaries. From mimula it differs in the ordinary
spots, the rcniform not being ringed with pale scales. This really resembles
A. kelloggi Hy. Edw. very much; but Hampson places that species in
Sympistes with naked, reniform eyes, while in laerta they are distinctly hairy.

Mausi Hampson is from E. Turkestan, and the only species in the series
that is not American or circum-polar.

Zemblica Hampson is from Nova Zembla, and is a narrow-winged ally
of mausi. While not really American, it is not unlikely that the species
will be found in Alaska, and so should be looked for.

The other species referred to this genus I have commented upon in the
N.Y. Ent. Soc. Jour., 1907, Vol. XV, p. 151, and have there stated the
disposition made of them.

I still have in my collection a few examples that do not fit into any of the

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 111

described species ; but they are not sufficiently well marked, nor in sufficient
number, to warrant me in describing them at present.

Anarta hampa nov. sp.

Ground-color dull smoky fuscous with black and gray maculation. Patagia
■with sub-marginal black line and gray disk, dorsum posteriorly mottled with gray.
Basal line black, outwardly shaded with gray, with two moderate angulations. T.a.
line black preceded by a gray shading, a little oblique outwardly, irregularly out-
curved. T.p. line denticulate, black followed by a narrow gray shading, moderately
outcurved and only a little incurved in its course. S.t. Une gray or yellowish,
marked by the evenly dark s.t. space, drawn in on veins 2 and 5, outcurved between
and on each side. A series of black terminal lunules. The fringes dusky, cut with
yellowish. A vague median shade in the paler examples. Claviform small, but
distinctly outlined. Orbicular small, round or oval, more or less gray-marked.
Reniform small, narrow, upright, with narrow pale ring, a little constricted centrally.
Secondaries very pale straw-color, almost white, smoky at base and along inner
margin, with a distinct discal mark, a narrow, almost crenulated outer line, and a
broad blackish outer margin; fringes white. Beneath, whitish, more or less shaded
with blackish, with a black discal spot, an extra-median blackish line, and a blackish
outer margin on all wings. Primaries with fringes checkered, black and white;
secondaries with fringes white.

Expands 1.10-1.20 in. = 28-30 mm.

Habitat: White Mountains, New Hampshire.

Two males and one female, all in good condition. One of the males
came originally from Mrs. Slosson; the others have no indication of their
source, and none have a date label. Mossy yellow scales are in the median
space in cell and sub-median interspace, and along the line of the s.t. line,
beyond it.

Anarta flanda nov. sp.

Head and thorax gray to blackish, mixed with black scales; collar gray-tipped;
patagia with black sub-marginal line, disk posteriorly black-spotted. Abdomen
smoky, with a yellowish tinge in the male. Primaries gray marked with black, and
sometimes so much black-powdered that only the lines and terminal space are of the
gray base. Basal line geminate, black, included space gray, with two distinct out-
ward angulations in its short course. T.a. line geminate, black, included space
gray, outwardly oblique and very irregular. T.p. line lunulate, black, denticulate
on the veins, the accompanying gray shade narrow, moderately outcurved over the
cell, and then almost parallel with outer margin. S.t. line irregularly and variably
dentate, sharply defined by the contrast between the black or blackish s.t. space
and the gray terminal area. A series of small black terminal lunules between which
the long dark fringes are cut with yellowish. In lighter examples a distinct median
shade line extends from costa outwardly between the ordinary spots, and then, from
an obtuse angle, inwardly oblique to the inner margin. Orbicular round or oval,

112 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

small or moderate in size, usually gray. Reniform, moderate, upright, centrally
constricted, usuallj'- obscure, rarely paler in part. In the median space there is
usually a more or less obvious powdering of mossy yellow scales at the outer portion
of the cell and in the sub-median interspace. Secondaries dull yellow, smoky at
base and along inner margin, in the female with a dark discal lunule, a narrow
blackish extra-median line and a broad blackish outer border; fringes yellow; be-
neath, yellow. Primaries paler, outer border blackish with a black discal spot.
Secondaries with a black discal spot, an incomplete extra-median line and a
narrow blackish border.

Expands 1.00-1.16 in. = 25-29 mm.

Habitat: Newfoundland (Mr. Owen Bryant).

Over fifty exampk s, taken at light, and sent unpinned in layers of cotton.
There are few antennae, and legs are at a premium; but many of the speci-
mens are otherwise in good condition, and the series is excellent to determine
the constancy of the type. They range from almost ash-gray with black
transverse lines to almost black with gray lines, the terminal space being
always contrasting, and relieving the irregular s.t. line. The secondaries
tend to become suffused, and examples of both sexes are almost uniformly
washed with black. The mossy yellowish shading is a decidedly variable
quantity.

Anarta squara nov. sp.

Head, thorax and abdomen blackish, the vestiture of head and thorax more
yellowish, somewhat intermixed with white. Primaries dull smoky brown, more or
less gray, and black-powdered. Basal line distinct, single, black, rather diffuse.
T.a. line black, single, diffuse, almost upright to vein 1, and then outwardly bent to
inner margin. The space between basal and t.a. line may be gray-powdered. T.p.
line more or less lunulate, evenly outcurved over cell and scarcely drawn in below
it, accompanied outwardly by paler lunules and a more or less traceable defining-line.
S.t. line even, pale, preceded by blackish or dark spots or shadings. A series of
black or dark terminal lunules. The dark fringes narrowly pale cut. Orbicular
large, irregular, oblique, incomplete, concolorous, or paler. Reniform large, upright,
centrally constricted, incomplete, more or less marked with pale. Secondaries dull
yellowish, smoky along inner margin, with a broad blackish outer marginal band and
a blackish discal lunule. Beneath, all wings whitish to a broad black marginal band,
and all with a distinct black discal spot.

Expands 1.30-1 .38 in. = 32-34 mm.

Habitat: Greenland.

Two males and one female. The female is more uniform in color, and
has no white shadings. One male is much like this, but the median space
is darker, the lines are better marked, and the paler shadings are more obvi-
ous. The other male has the basal and terminal spaces and the ordinary
spots mottled with gray in which mossy yellow scales are intermixed. A
somewhat defective female from Colorado may be referable here.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUIDJE 113

Luperina innota no v. sp.

Ground-color a reddish rusty luteous. Head and thorax concolorous, somewhat
deeper in reddish than primaries. Primaries with median space more reddish and
darker than basal and extra-median areas. Basal line barely indicated on costa.
T.a. line single, brown, barely relieved, outcurved in the sub-median interspace. T.p.
line single, brown, barely relieved, with little outward points on the veins, evenly
outcurved over the cell and almost evenly oblique below it. S.t. line marked near
costa by a brown shade in the s.t. space, thence lost, or barely marked by a slightly
darker preceding shade. Claviform long, narrow, extending nearly to t.p. line, but
so slightly relieved in outline as to be readily overlooked. Orbicular round, moderate
in size, a little paler, else not defined. Reniform moderate, broadly lunate, a little
paler than its surroundings. Secondaries pale, transparent yellowish with a smoky
tinge. Beneath, yellowish; secondaries paler, primaries tinged with smoky in the
male.

Expands 1.36-1.45 in. = 34-36 mm.

Habitat: Yellowstone Park, Wyoming, July 8; Arangie, Idaho.

One male and one female in good condition, and two poor males, which
are probably the same; from Colorado localities. The type of maculation
is not unlike that of passer; but the faded, rusty, washed-out appearance
is more like the orthosiids of the citima type. A male example is in the
British Museum, and I owe acknowledgments to Sir George F. Hampson
for comparing it with the Museum material.

Hadena (Luperina) birnata nov. sp.

Head and thorax dark purplish brown, vertex of head and tip of coUar with
yellowish hair admixed. Primaries light brown; the upper half to t.p. line, a
quadrate patch in s.t. space on costa, and terminal space (save apex), dark brown
with a blackish shade or powdering. Basal line obscurely marked as a pale spot on
costa. T.a. line vaguely traceable by a paler shade across the dark portion of wing,
altogether lost below that. T.p. line obvious throughout its course, but hardly
well defined: on the costa it is obviously geminate, and makes a rather abrupt
even bend over the cell, well defined by the difference between the dark median and
pale s.t. space; below vein 2 the difference between the spaces is slight, and the
line is defined by a narrow line of darker brown scales. S.t. line marked chiefly by
the contrast between s.t. and terminal spaces, the darker shades extending inward
opposite the cell and in the sub-median interspaces. A series of small black terminal
lunules. Fringes cut with yellowish. Claviform absent, or barely marked by a few
black scales. Orbicular obscure, vaguely black-edged, irregular, of moderate size.
Reniform moderate in size, broadly lunate, discolored, lighter than the rest of the
wing, not completely outlined nor well defined, inferiorly, and at the branching at
the end of the median, marked with black scales. Secondaries even dull yellowish
or smoky. Beneath, yellowish gray, powdeiy; disk of primaries darker; secondaries,
costal area and a discal spot darker.

Expands 1.12-1.32 in. = 28-33 mm.

114 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Habitat: Newfoundland.

Three male examples, one of them almost perfect, a second fair, and a
third more or less oily, yet with maculation in good condition. This is a
close ally of L. passer Gn., and I thought, at first, a small, local race; but
in the long series of passer in my collection, covering from the Atlantic to
the Pacific, and the Rocky Mountain region into the mountains of Canada
and Manitoba, there are certain features that occur always, in spite of differ-
ences in size, and variations in color and markings. In the almost total
absence of claviform, in the form, marking and outline of reniform, and in
the course of the s.t. line, the new species differs most markedly from passer,
as well as in the smaller size. A defective example from St. John, N.B.,
will probably prove referable here.

It might be added that I have an example of true passer from Grand
Lake, N.F., as small as hirnata, but quite characteristic in other respects.

Xylophasia illustra nov. sp.

Ground-color sooty black, dull. Head and thorax concolorous. Primaries
with all except the s.t. line lost. The latter is marked by white scales, but is broken
and fragmentary: so far as it shows, it is irregular, indicating a small W-mark, and
partly preceded by velvety black scales forming an in-egular, vague preceding shade.
A yellowish line at the base of the fringes, emphasized by larger dots at the ends
of the veins. The reniform is vaguely indicated by paler scales. Abdomen dusty
gray, the dorsal tuf tings well marked. Secondaries yellowish gray with a darker
hne at the base of the paler fringes. Beneath, smoky gray; primaries darker with
terminal space paler; secondaries paler, more powdery, with a moderate discal spot.

Expands 1.52 in. = 28 mm.

Habitat: High River, Alberta.

A single good male, taken by Mr. Thomas Baird and sent me by Dr.
Fletcher. The species resembles spuiatrix and plutonia in the dark color;
but this color is dull, not glossy, and the secondaries have no trace of yellow
or brown.

Xylophasia miniota nov. sp.

Ground-color dull, smoky fuscous without strong contrasts of any kind. Front
of head and collar, inferiorly, more yellowish; front with a black transverse line;
collar with a black line dividing the lower pale from the upper darker portion; disk
of thorax mottled with black scales. Primaries dull with black powdering, all the
maculation present, but not contrasting. A short black streak at base, reaching
to the basal line, which is geminate, blackish, included space a little paler. T.a.
line geminate, blackish, included space concolorous, outwardly oblique, with a little
irregular outcurve. T.p. line geminate, the inner portion black, more or less lunu-
late and irregular, the outer obscure, brown, even, partly lost : as a whole, some-

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 115

what irregularly outcurved over cell and decidedly incurved below it. S.t. line
narrow whitish, irregular, with a distinct W, preceded by sagittate black marks
and shades which tend to become lost, and sometimes outwardly emphasized by
black scales. A series of black terminal lunules, beyond which the fringes are cut
with, yellow. Claviform short; broad, outlined by blackish scales, concolorous.
Orbicular of good size, irregularly oval, oblique, incompletely outlined, not so
powdery, and sometimes a little paler. Reniform large, broad kidney-shaped, out-
lined in black, outwardly relieved by a pale blotch which has somewhat the
appearance of a small reniform stuck in the upper outer comer of a very large one.
Secondaries pale dirty yellowish, outwardly smoky, with a more or less obvious
outer line and discal spot, darker in the female. Beneath, smoky, powdery; sec-
ondaries paler; all wings with a more or less well-marked extra-median line and a
small dusky discal spot.

Expands 1.36-1.62 in. = 34-41 mm.

Habitat: Manitoba; Miniota, May 5, 11, 22; Cartwright, May 24.

Three males and six females, mostly in fair condition, are under exami-
nation, two of them belonging to Mr. Heath, the others received through
H. H. Brehme. The species is in some respects intermediate between
versuta and riinata, and is characterized principally by having no very strong
characters. There is quite a variation in the distinctness of the sagittate
marks preceding the s.t. line, one example from Cartwright having the
entire series fully defined, while in other examples they are almost entirely
absent.

Hadena ferida nov. sp.

Ground-color dull rusty brown with black powderings. Head with a dusky
frontal line. Collar with two narrow blackish lines. Thoracic disk and patagia
more or less marked with dark brown or black scales. Primaries with all the normal
maculation present, but not constrasting, and more or less obscured by black powder-
ings. Basal line geminate, black, broken, angulated. T.a. line geminate, black,
the inner part less marked, outwardly oblique, somewhat curved, with an obtuse
angle just below the middle. T.p. line geminate, inner portion somewhat lunulate,
outer more even and less distinct, followed by a series of pale venular points; out-
wardly bent over cell, then oblique, nearly parallel to the outer margin, except for
an incurve in the sub-median interspace. S.t. line yellowish, broken, almost punc-
tiform in some examples, a distinct though broken W on veins 3 and 4. A series
of black terminal lunules, between which the fringes are cut with yellow. There is
a somewhat obscure, diffuse median shade, which is more obvious on the costa and
again below the claviform, where the entire median space is somewhat darkened.
Claviform pointed, large, extending across the median space, the lower margin form-
ing an obvious black bar, the upper margin less conspicuous and sometimes incom-
plete. Orbicular very large, oblique, irregularly ovate, incompletely outlined by
black scales, a little paler than ground, with a dusky central dot, spot or line.
Reniform large, irregular, the upper and lower margins extending beyond the cell,
and not defined, more or less marked with yellowish scales, and tending to central
lines. Secondaries smoky, paler at base, with a dark terminal line at the base of

116 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

the yellowish fringes. Beneath, gray to smoky, powdery, with a more or less
marked extra-median line and discal spot on all wings.
Expands 1.32-1.52 in. = 33-38 mm.

Habitat: Newfoundland.

Four female examples, in good to fair condition except for legs and
antennae. The thoracic crests are well marked, the anterior divided cen-
trally; abdominal tufts distinct, those on 3d and 4th segments even con-
spicuous. The species has no very close allies in our lists, but is perhaps
nearest to miniota, with which, nevertheless, it can hardly be closely com-
pared.

Eadena susquesa nov. sp.

Head a dull rusty luteous. Collar luteous gray inferiorly, leaden or ash-gray
at tip. Thorax with gray and black mottlings and lines over a rusty luteous base;
the disk of patagia luteous. Primaries rather bright reddish luteous, with rusty
brown markings and ash-gray shadings. Median Unes obscure. T.a. line traceable
chiefly by the difference in shade between the luteous basal space and more gray-
shaded median space, also by dusky venular marks which are not connected. T.p.
line indicated on costa, lost over the cell, but traceable again below vein 4, and there
parallel with outer margin. There is no obvious s.t. line. A series of inter-spatial
blackish terminal lunules tend to unite into a shaded line below vein 4. A narrow
yellow line at base of fringes, which are narrowly cut with yellow beyond the veins.
There is a rusty brown streak at base below the median vein. Claviform large, con-
colorous, outlined in rusty brown, extending almost across the median space: beyond
it the interspace is yellowish to the outer margin. Orbicular round or nearly so,
brown-ringed, then with a yellow annulus, gray-centered. Reniform large, upright,
a little constricted, gray-filled, rather obscurely outlined in brown and yellow, a
conspicuous yellowish shade beyond it toward apex. The veins tend to become
blackish marked; and, beyond the t.p. line, veins 3 and 4 are whitish-bordered to
the outer margin, gi^^ng them a white-rayed appearance. Secondaries dull smoky
brown with a darker discal spot and a blackish line at base of the white-tipped fringes.
Beneath, yellow-gray, more or less mottled and powdery, with variably distinct
outer line and discal spot.

Expands 1.20 in. = 30 mm.

Habitat: Claremont, Cal. (Carl Baker); San Diego, Cal. (Frank
Merrick).

Two male examples, in good condition, neither with date of capture.
The example from Mr. Baker has been in my collection a long time awaiting
a mate; the example from Mr. Merrick is just received, and, while it is not
exactly a mate, it is at lea.st a duplicate that shows the species to be a good
one, and not discolored, as I had suspected. The peculiar reddish luteous
ground, the gray shading, and the tendency to a strigate t\'pe of maculation,
give the species a superficial resemblance to Morrisonia, and more especially
to mucens; but it is really allied to Hadena fumosa, and has the excision
below the apex of the secondaries well marked.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 117

Orthosia dusca no v. sp.

Has the general appearance of euroa, but is smaller, darker, with more diffuse
maculation and with shorter, broader primaries. I have a series of ten eastern
euroa ranging in locality from New York to Kittery Point, Me., and a series of over
forty specimens from various points in Manitoba and British Columbia, and the
latter are uniformly different in the points just mentioned. In the females the
difference is much more marked, as a rule, than in the males; for in the female euroa
the primaries are usually distinctly rectangular or even a little pointed at tip, the
median shade is distinct and well defined, and all the maculation is neatly written:
in dusca, on the other hand, the primaries are quite as stumpy in the female as in
the male, the median shade is diffuse, often indistinct, and usually all the markings
are obscure and mottled.

Expands 1.-1.12 in. = 25-28 mm.

Habitat: Cartwright, Miniota and Winnipeg, Manitoba, August and
September; Kaslo, B.C.

Cucullia phila no v. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries bluish gray. Head with two obscure blackish
transverse lines. Thorax A\ath disk brownish, the patagia obscurely sub-margined
with brown or blackish. Primaries tending to brownish along the costal region,
a distinct rusty shade in the cell where the ordinary spots are vaguely indicated.
A distinct wliite, diffuse blotch in the sub-median interspace before the curved
black mark representing the t.p. line. T.a. line traceable, single, slender, black,
with long outward teeth, that in the sub- median interspace reaching almost to the
middle of the wing. T.p. line vaguely indicated, except in the sub-median inter-
space, where it forms a black incurve, and over vein 1, where it is bent outwardly
and is accompanied by a white band. An obscure black basal streak into the s.m.
tooth of t.a. line. An oblique black streak extends from the curve of the t.p. line
to the margin just below vein 2. The veins are black-marked, and beyond them
the brown fringes are cut with gray. There is a narrow, black, broken terminal
line. Secondaries white to the middle, then darkening gradually to a deep smoky
brown outer border, the fringes white. Beneath, primaries glossy smoky brown;
secondaries as above, but the dusky outer border is narrower. Abdomen grayish
white, the dorsal tuftings brown.

Expands 1.50-1.60 in. = 37-40 mm.

Habitat: Philadelphia, Pa.; Maryland.

Tw^o males and two females. The two males and one female are from
Mr. Frederick Weigand of Philadelphia, and are bred specimens. The
Maryland example is old, and has been left unnamed for years, because I
had no record of its source, and I doubted a new eastern species so rare that
only one example should occur in collections. It is more sordid in appear-
ance than the bred examples, and has a brownish shading throughout the
primaries, which obscures the white blotch in the median space.

118 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The species is allied to speyeri, but is smaller and darker throughout,
with comparatively broader primaries.

The larva, an inflated specimen of which is sent by Mr. Weigand, has
the head black, clypeal sutures and an inferior lateral spot yellow; a broad
orange dorsal line bordered by a broad black band which cuts into and
vertically divides a yellow lateral line; a broad orange sub-lateral line
inferiorly edged by a broken black line. Feet yellow, black-ringed at base.
Ventral surface yellow, marked with a broken black line toward the sides.
The margins of the first thoracic segment are yellow above, and the posterior
margin of the dorsal hump on segment 12 is also yellow.

The larvae were taken in fall, "feeding on the perennial or New England
Aster," in Fairmount Park. Adults emerged the spring following, date
not quoted.

Copicucullia mala nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries whitish gray. Head with front mixed with brown-
ish; collar with obscure brownish transverse Hnes. Thorax with brown scales inter-
mingled, but no definite raaculation. Primaries with transverse maculation lost,
and ordinary spots not traceable. T.a. line marked by an oblique costal brown
streak. On the inner margin is a black streak, which extends from near base to
about the middle of the wing. A narrow black line extends from base, through sub-
median interspace, to middle, where it dilates, and forms a streak which is dislocated
at half its course, and reaches the outer margin below vein 2. Veins blackish-marked;
costal region a little darker; an obscure dusky shade extends inwardly from outer
margin below apex toward the middle of inner margin; but it is interrupted before
the sub-medial black streak, and practically lost in the ground-color. Secondaries
smoky, a Uttle paler at base, the fringes white. Beneath, very pale whitish gray;
the primaries a little darker.

Expands 1.30 in. = 32 mm.

Habitat: Witch Creek, Cal., Aug. 12.

A single male, in fair condition. This resembles eulepis Grt., but is
smaller. The t.p. line is completely lost, and there is no black marking
below vein 4 on the outer margin. There are other, minor differences; but
those named above are most obvious.

Plagiomimicus dollii nov. sp.

Ground-color a luteous yellow overlaid and shaded by pale chocolate-brown,
the lines luteous golden brown, and a golden brown tinge also reflected from the
primaries. Head and thorax uniform brown; abdomen paler, more yeUow-ish.
Primaries with t.a., median and t.p. lines single, sub-paraUel, each with a strong
outward acute angle. In the t.a. line this angle is near the middle; in the median
line it is on vein 5, opposite the lower angle of the cell; in the t.p. line it is above
vein 6; and at the point of angulation an oblique dusky shade continues to the apex

SMITH, NEW NOCTUIDM 119

seeming at first a continuation of the line. The s.t. Une is marked by this obhque
shade near costa, but below only by the difference between the luteous terminal
area (which is the palest portion of the wing) and the slightly darker, very narrow
s.t. space. A golden brown, continuous, even, terminal line at the base of the yellow-
ish Drown fringes. The ordinary spots are large, concolorous. Orbicular round
or nearly so, inconspicuously ringed with darker brown. Reniform broad, a little
constricted, incompletely defined in brown. Secondaries yellow with a golden
luster, smoky toward base within a dusky extra-median line. A faint dusky lunule
and a distinct brown line at base of fringes. Beneath, golden yellowish, with a dusky
median shade line on both wings.

Expands 1.12-1.35 in. =: 28-34 mm.

Habitat: Palmerly, Cochise County, Arizona, August.

Two male and two female examples, all in good condition; from the
collection of the Brooklyn Institute. I cannot identify this with any of
the described species from Central America, and it is quite different from
those of our own species thus far described. The frontal protuberance is
umbilicate, the depression roughened.

Schinia espea nov. sp.

Head and thorax creamy ^-ith a reddish tinge; abdomen whitish. Primaries
very pale creamy with a greenish tint, the shading olivaceoas. Basal area whitish
to the t.a. line, which is very oblique inwardly and a little arquate, extending from
beyond basal third of costa to within basal third of inner margin. The line is out-
wardly shaded with olivaceous, which is darkest and broadest inferiorly, so as to
slightly obscure the entire median space, the costal area being lightest, and fading
out to the t.p. line. T.p. line from costa just within apex inwardly oblique, evenly
bi-sinuate, to the outer third of inner margin. S.t. space very narrow, especially
on costal margin, olivaceous, marking, by its contrast with the pale terminal space,
an even but not at all defined s.t. line just about parallel to the outer margin.
Fringes olivaceous. Secondaries white, sub-transparent, with a moderate blackish
outer border. Beneath, white; primaries with smoky clouds over the costal area
and s.t. space.

Expands .96 in. = 24 mm.

Habitat: INIiaco, Florida, September.

One rather poor female out of a purchased lot, collector unknown.
The species is an ally of hiundulata on the characters used by Hampson;
but the course of the median lines is utterly unlike that of any other species
known to me.

Pseudacontia cansa nov. sp.

Head and thorax a mottling of white and glossy gray scales, more white on the
head than on thorax, and more white in the male than in the female. Abdomen
gray, segments narrovsly white-ringed. Primaries smooth glossy gray, the median

120 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lines forming broad, rather even white bands in the female, becoming more diffuse
inwardly iu the male. S.t. line whitish, very irregular, tending to become lost medi-
ally, a little emphasized by brown preceding scales in some specimens; a patch of
golden brown scales at the apex. A series of black terminal dots, fringes obscurely
cut with pale. Orbicular a small black dot, Reniform a small black crescent at
the inner edge of the white band forming the t.p. line. Secondaries smoky gray
with a diffuse whitish median band, more distinct in the male, in which a dusky lu-
nate discal mark is more or less obvious. Beneath, primaries smoky at base, becom-
ing paler outwardly until they are white before a distinct broad, defined blackish s.t.
band, beyond which the wing is again pale. There is a small black discal lunule.
Secondaries whitish, with a narrow extra-basal dark band, a broader, blackish sub-
terminal band, and a black discal lunate mark.
Expands .94 -.98 in. = 2.3.5-24.5 mm.

Habitat: Hamilton County, Kansas, 3500 feet (Professor F. H. Snow).

One male and two females, in fair condition. I have been inclined to
regard these as forms of crustaria INIorr. ; but the receipt of quite a series
of the latter shows them to be distinct. The vestiture is smoother through-
out, and, while the maculation is almost the same, there is none of the
bright coloring or sharp contrast of the older species. The armature of
the fore tibia is also somewhat different, forming distinct outer and inner
claws, instead of a long inner claw wuth a marked outer angle of the flat
corneous tip.

Pseudacontia louisa nov. sp.

Head and thorax rich yellow-brown mottled with creamy white and black scales;
abdomen yellowish. Primaries creamy yellowish white marked and mottled with
brown and black. Basal space brown-powdered, so that the pale ground is only
just discernible; the basal line geminate, blackish, included space of the ground-
color. T.a. line a broad band of the basal creamy tint, the anterior margin formed
by the limits of the dusky base, the posterior a black scale line edging the brown
median space; the line irregular, with a larger outcurve between veins 1 and 2, and
a sharp inward tooth on vein 1. The median space is narrow, brown-powdered, with
the round black reniform (which is annulate with yellow) fonning a conspicuous
feature, the outer margin formed by an edging of black scales, of which the small
lunate orbicular forms part and the irregular inner part of the t.p. line forms the
remainder. Beyond this the wing is creamy to the brown terminal space, the s.t.
space appearing bluish from the dark band of under side, the edges of which are a
little marked by brown scales on the upper surface. S.t. line not defined, the termi-
nal space narrow, and irregularly brown-powdered. A series of distinct black ter-
minal lunules at the base of the long, brown, pale interlined fringes. Secondaries
blackish, with a broad yellowish white median band in which is a large blackish
discal lunate mark. Beneath, primaries mottled, blackish and yellow; a distinct,
extra-median, broad outer band forming the most conspicuous feature. Second-
aries pale yellowish, with a large blackish discal mark and a narrow, broken,
irregular sub-terminal blackish band. A broken dark terminal line on all wings.

Expands 1.10 in. = 27 mm.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 121

Habitat: Sabine Parish, La. (G. Coverdale).

A single male has been in my collection a long time awaiting a mate,
and is now described because there seems no present hope of more material
from the same region. It was a papered example, and the body is trans-
versely flattened out of all shape; but the primaries are perfect and the
maculation is clean and well defined. It is larger than crustaria with a
similar t}^e of maculation; but in this the pale ground predominates, and
the dusky s.t. space and more or less well-defined s.t. line are eliminated
altogether. The anterior legs are w^anting in the type, and the generic
reference is therefore made upon the basis of the general resemblance to
crustaria.

Annaphila miona nov. sp.

Head and thorax bronze-brown with black and metallic-blue scales intermingled,
forming no obvious ornamentation. Abdomen deep orange with narrow black
dorsum, the edges of the segments narrowly orange. Primaries brown, mottled
with black and metallic blue scales, the latter most obvious beyond the reniform
and along the upper course of the s.t. line. Basal Une traceable by black scales. T.a.
line geminate, black, more or less broken, included space a little paler than ground,
outwardly oblique and with a distinct outward tooth in the sub-median interspace.
Median line black, quite obvious, outwardly oblique and a little outcurved. T.p.
hne, consisting of a very even brown band, very regularly bent over the cell, and an
inner, broken, very irregular blackish line forming the outer border of the median
space, and this is inwardly toothed on vein 2. The outer part of the wing is black
at apex, shading to brown at anal angle; and through the black portion the s.t.
line is very irregularly marked out by brilliant blue scales: below the middle the line
becomes more even* and pale. Fringes brown with a black interline, beyond which
they are checkered with black. Orbicular not obvious in the specimens. Reniform
large, irregularly lunate, pale brown, ringed with white, with a whitish patch above
it to costa, and outwardly three lobe-like extensions of the t.p. line filled with blue
scales. Secondaries deep orange with a broad, even, black margin and a very faint
basal line of blackish scales. No discal spot. Beneath, orange; primaries with a
broad outer border, narrowing toward the angle, interrupted by a series of orange
spots, and a broad median band from inner margin to center, where it breaks, and
sends spurs toward costa and outer margin; secondaries with a broad black outer
band in which a series of orange spots is traceable.

Expands .80 in. = 20 mm.

Habitat: Plumas County, California, June.

Two females, in good condition save for lack of antennae. At first sight
the orange of secondaries seems unbroken, except for the broad, solid,
black outer band, and this forms a characteristic of the species. The faint
blackish basal line becomes obvious enough when attention is drawn to it;
but there is no black shading at the extreme base of the wing.

122 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Annaphila variegata nov. sp.

Head and thorax bronzed brown mottled with blue and white scales, the latter
tending to form a white tip to the collar. Abdomen orange, dorsum blackish, the
segments narrowly orange-ringed. Primaries with basal area grayish brown to t.a.
line; the median space, except reniform, darker, more or less blue- powdered; reni-
form, and obliquely below to the imaer angle, white or very pale orange-yellowish
merging outwardly into a dusky terminal and apical shade in which a black-edged
s.t. line is prominent to the middle: the line itself consists of scattered white scales
forming a white mark on costa, and beyond it are blue scales. Basal line dark
chocolate-brown. T.a. line geminate, black or blackish, forming a sharp outward
tooth in the sub-median interspace, and almost or quite meeting an inward tooth of
the median shade; black scales connecting the two when they do not actually meet.
Median shade line black, very irregular, keeping close to the t.p. line so far as that
is defined below the reniform. T.p. line discontinuous, brown, and partly defined
by the s.t. space from costa over cell, broken opposite the lower angle of the reni-
form, where a loop-like extension of the dark median space forms the lower angle of
that spot, then black, wath an inward angle on vein 2. Orbicular very obscure,
round, concolorous, traceable by an outline of black scales. Reniform a large white
or faintly orange blotch, inwardly and inferiorly defined, upwardly extending to
costa, and outwardly merging into the s.t. space. There is a series of black termi-
nal spots which tends to become sagittate above the pale area. There is a pale
line at the base of the long fringes, which are brown with a black interline, and out-
wardly checkered gray and brown. Secondaries orange-yellow, varying in depth;
the males paler, with a broad black outer band ha\-ing an irregular inner margin,
a more or less continuous narrow sub-basal band, and a black spot on the inner
margin above the anal angle. Beneath, orange; primaries with a broad outwardly
oblique black band, a black sub-marginal band which is broad from costa to the
middle, where it touches the inner margin and is then very narrow and linear, and a
black outer border, which is separated from the black fringes by a very narrow
orange line; secondaries with a broken black inner line, a fragmentary median line
indicated by two spots near inner and one on costal margin, a very irregular outer
band more or less connected with the narrow black outer margin.

Expands .88-.95 in. = 22-24 mm.

Habitat: Placer County, California, 2500 feet.

Five males and five females, in good condition and all very much alike.
The males are uniformly a little smaller and less intensely colored, with the
inner black band on secondaries more generally broken. There is no black
discal spot on secondaries, and the maculation of the primaries is more like
the yellow-winged forms than any other of the orange-winged species,
except miona.

Erastria puncticosta nov. sp.

Ground-color verj"- pale ashen with a smoky gray powdering and overlay. Head
and collar dark chocolate-brown, but varying toward the ground. Primaries with
large brown costal spots at the inception of the basal, t.a. and t.p. lines, and beyond

SMITH, NEW NOCTUIDM 123

the latter a series of alternate brown and pale marks to the apex. The basal line
does not extend much below the costal spot. T.a. line single, narrow, broken,
irregular, inwardly obhque. T.p. line single, broken, very irregular, outwardly
bent over cell, and partly obsolete at that point. S.t. line pale, very irregular,
preceded by a dusky shading, which may be emphasized by still darker, more sagit-
tate spots. A series of black terminal lunules, beyond which the fringes are cut with
pale. There is no obvious orbicular. Reniform a narrow black line or lunule, which
may or may not be margined outwardly with whitish. Secondaries uniformly
smoky brown. Beneath, smoky, varying in tint; the primaries always darker,
with the white costal dots of upper side reproduced; the secondaries more whitish,
tending to a dusky outer margin.

Expands .60 -.66 in. = 15-16.5 mm.

Habitat: New Brighton, Pa., July 22-Aug. 11.

Nine examples, all males and mostly in good condition. The species
at first sight resembles the deltoid species of Megachyta by the prominent
brown costal spots. There is little variation in the examples before me,
except in the amount of the dusky overlay. In the best examples this
extends from just beyond the base to the outer margin, becoming gradually
more intense, so that the pale s.t. line stands out clearly in contrast; in the
poorest examples the dusky tint remains over the terminal area only, and
the s.t. line loses in relative distinctness. The abdomen is smoothly scaled,
with a small dorsal scale-tuft at base in the better specimens. Beneath,
the legs are dusky and the tarsi narrowly pale-ringed.

The species seems to be not uncommon at New Brighton, but I have
none at present from other sources.

Erastria humerata no v. sp.

Head and coUar chocolate-brown; thorax and ground-color of primaries gray
with an overlay of yellowish pale brown scales. Primaries with median space filled
by a blackish-brown shading and a sub-quadrate patch of the same color on costa
in s.t. space. Basal line brown, extending to median vein, and from it, to base of
wing, is a dark chocolate-brown spot, which looks like the extension of the collar.
T.a. line dark brown, irregular, a little inwardly obUque, outwardly diffuse, preceded
by a whitish line or shade. T.p. line blackish, broken, irregular, abruptly and
squarely exserted over the cell. This outward exsertion of the paler ground occurs
beyond the linear black reniform, so that at first sight the t.p. line seems to cross
the wing with only a slight outward curve. Outwardly the t.p. line is bordered by
pale scales. S.t. line pale, very irregular, forming a broad inward angle opposite
the cell, and an almost equal outward angle between veins 3 and 4. As a whole, the
s.t. space is a little smoky, darkening to the large brown costal patch. Terminal
space usually paler and a little more brown than the rest of the wing. A series of
distinct black terminal lunules, beyond which the dusky fringes are cut with yellow-
ish. Orbicular wanting. Reniform black, linear, upright. A series of three white
dots on costa between t.p. and s.t. lines. Secondaries uniform smoky. Beneath,

124 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

smoky; primaries darker, with the costal dots of upper side intensified and a larger
one at inception of t.p. line; secondaries paler, with a large discal spot.
Expands .58 -.64 in. = 14.5-16 mm.

Habitat: New Brighton, Pa., July 11-31.

Eight examples, in good to fair condition, all males; from Mr. H. D.
Merrick. As in pundicosta, the antennae have the joints distinctly marked
and feebly serrate, with obvious ciliae but no distinct tufts. There is also a
small scale-tuft at the base of the abdomen, which is rubbed in most speci-
mens. There is little or no variation except such as is due to the condition
of the specimens, producing more or less contrast between the median and
the outwardly adjoining areas.

Erastria immuna nov. sp.

Deep purplish brown or blackish over a pale base, the maculation black. Where-
ever the purplish overlay has been marred, the whitish base becomes more or less
evident. Primaries with basal line black, ob\'ious on costa, and emphasized by
whitish scales outwardly. T.a. line black, single, velvety, a little outcurved in the
interspaces, and on the whole a little inwardly obUque. Median shade black,
nearly upright, a little diffuse, and beyond it the wing tends to a little mottling.
T.p. line black, single, more or less lunulate, irregularly outcurved over the cell and
inwardly bent below it, emphasized by a few pale scales. S.t. Une irregular, broken,
pale, chiefly marked by a black preceding shade which is sharply defined on the line,
but becomes diffuse inwardly. A series of black terminal lunules which may be
emphasized by pale scales. A series of four white costal dots before apex. Fringes
cut with pale opposite the cell. Orbicular wanting in the specimens. Reniform a
creamy white lunule. Secondaries even, smoky gray. Abdomen smoky gray with
a conspicuous black basal tuft on dorsum. Beneath, gray, powdery; primaries
darker, with a paler terminal space; secondaries more whitish, with a small discal
spot and a tendency to an exterior line.

Expands .80 in. = 20 mm.

Habitat: New Brighton, Pa., July 21, 28.

Two males, in fair condition; from Mr. H. D. Merrick. The species
is similar to muscosula in size and wing-form, but is much darker throughout,
and darker than any of the other species known to me. Of the two examples
before me, the one taken July 21 is almost uniformly purplish black with
the pale reniform and the small whitish costal dots conspicuous; the speci-
men taken on the 28th has the outer half of the wing distinctly pale-flecked,
and this seems to be due to the removal of some of the surface scales. The
species is therefore apt to be apparently variable, the more so as the black
markings are composed of somewhat elevated scales.

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 125

Thalpochares fractilinea nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries pale, creamy yellowish, the latter washed and
shaded with luteous. Basal line wanting, or marked only by black dots on costa and
sub-costa. T.a. line a series of black dots which are sometimes connected by a
brownish line, in course a little inwardly oblique. T.p. line black, broken, squarely
exserted over the cell, followed by a more or less obvious pale shading. S.t. line
pale, very even, outwardly diffuse, preceded by a darker shading in which there
may be some black scales. A series of distinct black terminal lunules and a pale
line at base of fringes. A somewhat obscure median shade darkens the outer portion
of median space. Orbicular wanting. Reniform a small black, somewhat lunate
mark. A series of four pale costal spots from t.p. to s.t. line. Secondaries uni-
formly smoky. Beneath, primaries dusky, with the costal spots of upper surface
obscurely reproduced; secondaries paler, without obvious maculation.

Expands .48 -.52 in. = 12-13 mm.

Habitat: New Brighton, Pa., June 12, July 29, Aug. 3, 9, 12, 14, 26.

Five males, one female, and two specimens in which the sex is indeter-
minable, owing to their defective condition; from Mr. H. D. Merrick. The
species is narrower-winged and has longer palpi than the other American
forms referred to this genus, and this may not be the best place for it. The
primaries lack the accessory cell in the two specimens examined, and this de-
termined the generic reference.

. Homopyralis bigaUis nov. sp.

Of the usual red-brown overlying a dull luteous, which becomes apparent when
the specimen is flown? Maculation black. More or less black powdering, which
usually darkens the basal space and may obscure the outer half of median space of
primaries. Head and thorax marked with black and purplish intermingled scales.
Primaries with t.a. line black, geminate, outcurved below median vein, inner part
of line not distinct from dusky basal space. T.p. line geminate, inner portion lunu-
late, more or less broken, rather squarely exserted over cell; outer portion incom-
plete, in part reduced to a series of pale venular dots. A pair of waved black shade
lines through the outer portion of median space, S.t. line pale, irregular, variably
defined, preceded by a quadrate blackish patch on costal area. A series of black
marginal followed by smaller, yellow terminal dots. Orbicular a small, round, soUd
black spot. Reniform a large, solid black quadrate or oblong spot. Secondaries
with the maculation of primaries continued across the disk, but as a whole nearer
to the base than on primaries. There is a tendency to a purplish shading through
the outer part of the wings. Beneath, smoky luteous; both wings with a curved
extra-median line, a crenulated terminal line, a more diffuse sub-basal line, and an
obscure discal lunule.

Expands 1.15-1.40 in. = 29-35 mm.

Habitat: Hot Springs, New Mexico, 7000 ft., September; Yavapai
County, Arizona, Aug. 8; Huachuca Mountains, Arizona, July 30;
Palmerly, Arizona, without date.

126 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Four males and two females, in fair condition. The markings are more
clearly defined and the lines are better separated than in the allied species.
Superficially the larger size will at once make it recognizable.

Epizeuxis intensalis nov. sp.

Head, thorax and primaries deep, rich, lustrous smoky brown; on the head and
thorax uniform, on the primaries overlying a pale, glossy luteous which appears
through in places, and gives the wing a mottled appearance. T.a. line upright,
with three equal outward teeth or angles only a little darker than the ground, and
usually best marked by the preceding pale shade, which is variably complete and
always diffuse. T.p. line sharply denticulate, with long outward teeth on all veins,
only a little outcurved over cell and incurved below, best marked by the well-defined
pale line which follows the obscure darker line. S.t. line very irregular, forming
three main outward lobes and three long inward angles, the first outward lobe begin-
ning at costa and extending to the inward tooth opposite middle of cell; the second
lobe begins at the latter point, and extends to the inward angulations on veins 1 and
2; the third outward lobe is only partial, and extends to the inner margin. The
terminal space is always paler than the rest of the wing, often mottled, and some-
times contrastingly so. There is no obvious median shade. A distinct black termi-
nal line, narrowly interrupted on the veins. Fringes smoky, narrowly cut with
yellow. Orbicular a small round dot of the yellow ground-color. Reniform moder-
ate in size, somewhat lunate, consisting of a dark crescent set in a larger spot of the
pale ground-color. Secondaries whitish, with a yellowish or smoky suffusion,
darker outwardly. There is a dusky median line followed by a pale shading, a pale
sub-marginal line, and a distinct brown terminal line. Beneath, yellow, very
sharply marked with a common black median line, a much fainter and variably
evident s.t. line, and obscure discal spots.

Expands 1.10-1.40 in. = 28-37 mm.

Habitat: Yavapai County, Arizona, July and August (Hutson); South-
ern Arizona, June 15-30 (Poling); Southern California (Poling).

Six males and one female, in fair or good condition. This species
resembles coheta Barnes at first sight, but differs from all others in the genus
by the distinctly annulate reniform, the contrasting terminal space, and the
sharply-marked under side. The secondaries also are paler than in any
other of the allied forms, so that we have a fairly well-defined species in an
aggregation of decidedly variable forms.

Epizeuxis partitalis nov. sp.

Head and thorax glossy brown with a smoky tinge, abdomen somewhat paler.
Primaries glossy brown; basal area a broad diffuse median shade, and all beyond
the t.p. line smoky blackish. T.a. line nearly upright, with three moderate out-
curves in the interspaces. T.p. line blackish, well-defined, denticulate, followed by
a less distinct paler line, moderately outcurved and drawn in only a little in the

SMITH, NEW NOCTUID^ 127

submedian interspace. S.t. line pale, irregular, incomplete. A black, somewhat
lunate terminal line. Fringes pale brown, obscurely cut with darker brown. Orbi-
cular not marked in the specimens before me. Reniform a small, upright dark bar
preceded by a paler shading. Secondaries smoky, darker outwardly, almost whitish
at base. There is a blackish median, a whitish sub-terminal, and a blackish terminal
line; the fringes pale dull yellowish. Beneath, powdery yellowish basally, smoky
or blackish beyond the middle; all wings with a small discal spot; primaries with
diiluse median shade, with obvious t.p. and pale s.t. line; secondaries reproducing
more clearly the maculation of upper surface.
Expands 1.24-1.32 in. = 31-33 mm.

Habitat: Yavapai County, Arizona, July 24 (Hutson).

One male and one female. Differs from the allied species in the paler
median space crossed by an obvious median shade. The secondaries are
as dark as in luhricalis; and as a whole it is very markedly distinct from
intensalis, which was collected in the same locality.

[Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XVIII, No. 3, Part II, pp. 129-146. 4 April, 1908.]

ON DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION
THROUGH RECASTING OF ANALYSES.^

By Alexis A. Julien, Ph. D.

Introduction.

The recognition of the aggregate character of rock constitution, even in
varieties of aphanitic texture, has led the analyst in recent years to rearrange
the determined chemical components of a rock in the form and propor-
tion of its existing mineral constituents. The now well-known advantages
of this practice, in the bearing of its results on the true character and probable
origin of a rock, are bringing about a complete revolution in petrographical
science. The day of the representation of the material of a rock by a mere
report of its chemical analysis has now passed.

The early mineralogists were accustomed frequently to transpose analyses
of a mineral substance into the proximate mineral constituents known at
that time, such as calcareous minerals and ores into various carbonates
and oxides. With the silicate minerals however the increasing list of known
minerals soon became burdened with an indefinite series of hypothetical
compounds, proposed by Rammelsberg, Tschermak, Knop and their suc-
cessors. The difiiculty and uncertainty attending the use of these, in
interpretation of chemical analyses, have perhaps served to discourage the
continuance of the ancient method; so that at present the discussion of the
chemical composition of a mineral generally ceases with presentation of its
analysis, accompanied by oxygen ratios and a formula.

A chemical analysis alone, particularly of a complex compound, such as
a silicate, rarely conveys — even to the eye of an expert mineralogist —
much more than a vague guess or estimate of the distinctive character of the
combination. A glance, for example, over an analysis of a chlorite, sepa-
rately presented, would hardly enable him to assign it with any certainty
to the page-full of selected but widely varying analyses of penninite or to
those of clinochlore or to those of prochlorite comprised in every treatise

1 Presented to the Academy at the meeting on 6 January, 1908.

129

130 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

on mineralogy, now seriously offered to us in illustration of the fixed theo-
retical composition of each of those minerals.

Nor is the certainty increased in very many cases by deduction of the
actual ratios existing between the components included in the chemical
analysis of a supposedly pure mineral. A chemical formula merely marks a
possible relationship and may be but a blind and even misleading guide.
The extraction of a formula is not confined to an independent mineral and
is not a certificate of homogeneity. Whatever the figures of an analysis
obtained from a pinch of soil or clay or from a fragment of brick, it would
go hard with any analyst if he could not devise therefrom some skeleton of
a formula. Yet these spectral shapes hover over all the early history of
mineral analysis, and their existence is often brought forward as the chief,
generally as the sufficient evidence to justify promulgation of new mineral
names or supposed new reactions in mineral genesis.

It is obvious that the initial process in the calculation of a formula, i. e.,
division of the percentage of each component by its molecular weight, is
one that tends to reduction of the comparative proportion of the minor
components, and thus to minimize and conceal the lack of homogeneity in
a substance subjected to analysis. An investigation of mineral material
therefore which ends with the presentation of the bulk analysis, even with
an annexed calculation of oxygen or molecular ratios and formula of the
crude aggregate, is surely incomplete.

Constitution of Crystallized Minerals,

The prevailing method of the analytical chemist, just discussed, seems
to have been founded upon two exaggerated views concerning the constitu-
tion of crystallized minerals:

1. The assumption of their practical homogeneity and purity, an error
which has crowded the literature of the science with hordes of discordant
analyses and a series of poorly described and uncertain species.

The revelations of the microscope, particularly by means of polarized
light, have long since established that a mineral, however well crystallized,
often even when limpid and free from visible enclosures, may be but an
aggregate, with one constituent in predominance in selected specimens,
enveloping a number of others. In the same association or vein, particu-
larly in vicinity of the matrix or vein-wall, phases of intermixture with
increasing amounts of the minor constituents commonly pass into less
perfectly crystallized forjns of the first predominant unit, and often into
earthy or massive aggregates in which one or another of the associates rises

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 131

into greater or prevailing proportion. Familiar examples of these transi-
tions are found in the endless variations of intermixture of quartz, even
within its crystals, with hyalite, iron-oxides, rutile, chlorite, etc.; the inter-
inclosure, intergrowth and inter-twinning of the feldspars in aggregates of
the most complex constitution, and the similar mutual envelopments of the
metallic sulphides.

The possibility of even "ideal purity" of a mineral has been based
largely on results of examination of material selected for chemical analysis.
The precautions usually taken to insure freedom from impurities are proba-
bly shown fairly in those long ago described by Doelter.* The fragments
were first examined by the naked eye and then under a hand lens. A thin
section was prepared and inspected. Splinters and cleavage-plates in
different directions were then spread on a glass slide and examined by
transmitted light under a low magnifying power of the microscope. By
these means, it was believed, the visible purity of the material was insured,
or, if impurities could still be detected but not removed, they were identified
and allowance made for their amount in the reduction of the analytical
figures.

In the light of present knowledge all these precautions appear insufficient
to insure purity. From the subtle revelations of existing intergrowths now
obtained through polarized light — the absolute concealment of all foreign
inclosures within subtranslucent and opaque specimens — and, in every
case, the escape of microscopic inclosures from observation, whatever their
abundance, whose minute dimensions fall below the resolving power of the
microscopic lens — the natural conclusion follows that the most effective
detection of inclosures must be sought through study of the relationships
of the chemical components of the mineral.

2. The usual mode of application of purely hypothetical compounds in
rearrangement of components.

Without questioning the propriety of their consideration in reconstruction
of an analysis, little seems to be gained toward real explanation of lacking
relationships, by excessive resort to imagined compounds, like Mg Fcj'"
SiOg, Fcj Fe/'' Sig O^j, and others, in pyroxene, which have never been dis-
covered in nature, in isomorphous interlocking with others, like CaMg SigOg,
whose co-existence as actual minerals is proved by optical behavior. In
such cases, a conviction of the extent of dissemination of existing minerals
as inclosures will lead rather to more persistent search for the latter, and,
I think, more satisfactory solution of difficult problems constantly presented
in recasting analyses.

An analysis then is not the end, but it is only a step toward the discovery
of the existing mineral constitution. As the chemical composition of an

1 Min. u. petr. Mitth., I, 49, 67, 373. 1878.

132 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

established mineral species is fixed, the possible object of analysis of a
specimen identified by other means may be two-fold : determination of any
replacements of components in the chief mineral ; and demonstration of the
constitution of other minerals which may be intermixed in the aggregate.
The latter may be of great importance in elucidation of genetic history and
relationships of the chief mineral.

Several methods have already been devised and applied toward quanti-
tative determination of the elements of such intergrowths or aggregates:
such as the graphic methods for measurement of their respective areas in a
microscopic field, by means of drawing or photography; that of separation
of the elements in a crushed aggregate by suspension in a dense liquid;
that of separation of ferruginous minerals from a pulverized aggregate by
means of an electromagnet; that of separate chemical analysis of the por-
tions of an aggregate soluble and insoluble in an acid; and that of com-
parison of the simplified bulk analysis with a series of hypothetical chemical
compounds. The first two methods are inapplicable to aggregates whose
granulation is microscopic; the next two are limited and imperfect, through
dependence upon a single character, and the last is subject to the errors
usual to excessive reliance upon hypothesis rather than upon data of obser-
vation.

A more simple and effective method, in many cases, is that shown in the
practice of the early mineralogists. Within every chemical analysis of a
mineral substance lies the Key to its constitution. For its completion a
re-arrangement or recasting is needed to determine the existing minerals as
combinations of stated components. This can be carried out where the
data are fairly complete, sometimes with great ease, and the results tend
toward solution of long mooted problems and elucidation of the character
of admittedly doubtful mineral species. Modern examples of a return to
this earlier practice have been offered in late studies of certain varieties
of pyrites, feldspars, spodumene and, more recently, jade.

Recast Analyses of Minerals.

A few simple illustrations, taken from a series of calculations now at
hand, will suffice to show the ease of the long-neglected method and the
value of its results. In connection with each analysis, as published, my
estimate of the approximate mineral constitution is appended. In con-
formity to the description of the mineral, the alumina has been assumed,
in these particular examples, as the basis for calculation of the amount
either of a chlorite or of an aluminum hydrosilicate, using the theoretical
composition which may correspond to the accepted formula of each mineral.

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 133

The following is presented as a good example, on the one hand, of the
deceptive appearance which may be assumed by a chemical analysis, and,
on the other, of the corrective evidence supplied by optical examination of
the same specimen.

" Marmolitic antigorite."

From New Idria, California. Pale apple-green. Analysis by G. F.
Becker, who states: "In pure serpentine 40.42 per cent, of magnesia cor-
responds to 41.52 per cent, of silica. It appears therefore that this mineral
is in fact a serpentine comparatively free from impurities. When reduced
to the proper thinness it was found that the material was far from homo-
geneous. A portion as seen under the microscope appeared absolutely
colorless by transmitted light, while the remainder was of yellowish and
brownish tints, in spots almost opaque, although by reflected light this posi-
tion retained the pale apple-green color of the hand specimen .... clouded
by the presence of extremely microcrystalline particles" (Mon. U. S. Geol.
Surv., XIII, 1888, 110).

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

Ferrous
oxide

Nickel
oxide

Magnesia

Water

Totals

41.54%

2.48%

1.37%

0.04%

40.42%

14.18%

100.03%

Antigorite

31.19

31.20

9.31

71.70

Deweylite

5.86

5.20

3.51

14.57

Prochlorite

3.37

2.48

1.37

4.02

1.35

12.59

Connarite

0.03

0.04

0.01

0.08

Hyalite

1.09

1.09

" Antigorite."
From Antigorio, Piedmont. Analysis by Kenngott.

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

Ferrous
oxide

Magnesia

Water

Totals

41.20%

2.90%

6.53%

36.71%

12.52%

99.86

Antigorite
Deweylite
Prochlorite
Hyalite

31.73
2.48
3.95
3.04

2.90

6.53

31.74
2.20

2.77

9.46
1.49

1.57

72.93
6.17

17.72
3.04

134

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

This is but one of a long series of determined mixtures of crystalline
antigorite with the minerals above stated and with others in the widest
variation. They appear to me to afford no ground for the hypothesis of
definite isomorphous mixtures of two minerals, antigorite and amesite,
from one extreme of a regular series to the other, as claimed by Tschermak,
but to indicate the irregular mixtures of several minerals in commonly
associated development.

" Deweylite."

An unusual variety of the mineral from the United States, whose high
content of silica has never been explained. G. = 2,096. Analysis by
Thomson.

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

Ferrous
oxide

Magnesia

Water

Totals

50.70%

3.55%

1.70%

23.65%

20.60%

100.20

Deweylite

28.55

1.70

23.65

17.11

71.01

Halloysite

4.18

3.55

1.88

9.61

Hyalite

17.97

1.61

19.58

" Bowenite."

From Cumberland, Rhode Island. The reported formula: 2(MgO.
CaO)2. SiOj + SHjO (Dana). Analysis by Bowen.

Ferric

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

oxide

Lime

Magnesia

Water

Totals

44.69%

0.56%

1.75%

4.25%

34.63%

13.42%

99.30

Diopside (residual)

9.18

4.25

3.05

16.48

Antigorite

20.51

20.52

6.12

47.15

Deweylite

10.84

9.63

6.51

26.98

Limonite

1.60

0.26

1.86

Chalcedony

2.78

2.78

Penninite

1.38

0.56

0.15

1.43

0.53

4.05

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 135

" ThermophyUite."

From Hopansuo, Finland. Average of three analyses by Arppe, Hermann
and Northcote, with the formulas: (RO. SRPg) 2Si03 + 2HO and (MgO.
HO) + MgO. SiOg.

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alu-
mina

Ferric
oxide

Ferrous
oxide

Magnesia

Po-

tassa

Soda

Water

Totals

41.93%

4.04%

0.66%

1.40%

37.29%

1.06%

1.54%

11.62%

99.54%

Phlogopite
(residual)
Antigorite
Hyalite

11.79

29.82
0.32

4.04

0.66

1.40

8.85
28.44

1.06

1.54

2.72
8.90

30.66

68.56
0.32

" Oeladonite."

An apple-green mineral, insoluble in acids, from Scotland. Average of
four analyses by Heddle.

It is stated: "Com|). — A silicate of iron, magnesium and potassium,
formula doubtful" (Dana).

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

Ferric
oxide

Ferrous
oxide

Lime

Magnesia

Po-

tassa

Water

Totals

54.84%

3.52%

12.64%

4.90%

0.89%

6.65%

7.00%

9.62%

100.06

Biotite

26.91

3.52

12.12

4.90

0.89

6.65

7.00

2.77

64.76

Limonite

0.52

0.09

0.61

Hyalite

27.93

6.76

34.69

" Houghite."

From Rossie, New York. Analysis by S. W. Johnson. "A hydrotal-
eite derived from the alteration of spinel" (Dana).

This was originally considered to consist essentially of variable mixtures
of SHjO. AI2O3 and MgO. HgO (Kenngott).

136

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Carbonic

Water (by

Hypothetical

Silica

Alumina

Magnesia

Insoluble

acid

difference)

Totals

3.02%

19.747o

36.29%

8.27%

8.46%

24.227o

100.00 %

Spinel (residual)

8.27

8.27

Spinel (dissolved)

10.84

4.22

15.06

Hydrotalcite

8.90

20.77

23.32

52.99

Magnesite

7.69

8.46

16.15

Antigorite

3.02

3.02

0.90

6.94

Periclase

0.59

0.59

Constitution of Micro-aggregates.

Those substances in particular which are apparently amorphous seem
to have led to the greatest misapprehension and error, which may now be
removed by similar treatment of their analyses. In the absence of outward
crystalline form they present two alternatives: they may be considered as
possibly either truly colloidal and optically isotropic, like obsidian; or as
microcrystalline but mostly homogeneous aggregates. In either case the
so-called "impurities" must be present. In the micro-aggregates, even
though one mineral may predominate, it is always safe to .presume that
admixture with other minerals does occur in varying but notable proportions.
In this respect it matters nothing whether an aggregate be macroscopic,
with constituents visible to the naked eye, or microscopic or even ultra-
microscopic; the limitations of our vision or optical instruments have no
bearing in any way on the settlement of homogeneity and of the question of
intermixture.

It is true that in descriptions of minerals many micro-aggregates have
been cautiously assigned to subsidiary lists or groups, imder such headings
as "Chloritic minerals more or less imperfectly defined," "Magnesian
silicates allied to serpentine but of somewhat doubtful character," and
"Appendix to hydrous silicates." Yet the same pages are crowded with
the names of impure aggregates, figuring as minerals, mainly because amor-
phous and somewhat uniform in color and other characters, particularly if
this conclusion has been buttressed by construction of chemical ratios or
formulas from the analyses.

Micro-aggregates are likely to comprise a larger number and proportion
of chemical components and of their combinations than those found in
crystals. The proposed solution of their constitution does not consist merely
of a calculation of the possible mineral combinations of a certain number

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 137

of chemical components; that process might be almost endless. It is
restricted to a careful discrimination of the probable proximate compounds,
i. e., simpler existing minerals, consistent with the physical and optical
characteristics possessed by the micro-aggregate. Furthermore, when the
associations of this aggregate and the probable conditions attending its
formation are knowTi, the identification of the constituent minerals may be
facilitated by restriction to the class of minerals developed in certain vein
or gangue formations or in a particular metamorphic zone: for example,
the constituents of the "diabantite" mixture to the series of minerals de-
veloped in the belt of weathering and there only.

In a study of the hydrous silicates, almost completed, to which this
paper is a partial introduction, I have prepared a tabulated list to indicate
the possible mineral combinations which may logically be sought for in
micro-aggregates of this particular class. Taking for present examples in
illustration of these views the micro-aggregates of magnesian hydrosilicates
of the belt of weathering or decay — one of the groups of amorphous mix-
tures of the most difficult resolution — the following are some of the chief
indices for detection of the combinations in which the more common com-
ponents may occur.

Silica in three forms : a) colloidal and soluble, in combination with a
large proportion of water, e. g., disilicic monohydrate, HjSijOg, containing
13.05 per cent, of water, or trisilicic dihydrate, H^SigOg, containing 16.67
per cent, of water; h) hyalite or opal, containing 2 to 13 per cent, of water
and insoluble, and (c) this, passing through various intermixtures, as semi-
opal, chalcedony, etc., into anhydrous and insoluble crystalline quartz.

Alumina: a) where silica is scanty, as one of the two aluminum hydrates
(bauxite, gibbsite); h) with silica abundant, as a residual remnant of an
aluminous mineral (pyroxene, mica, feldspar, etc.) or as one of eight alu-
minum hydrosilicates (allophane, halloysite, talcosite, etc., but perhaps not
kaolinite) ; c) in presence of alkaline and earthy bases, as a newly formed
chlorite or zeolite (a restricted list, prochlorite, stilbite, natrolite, etc.).

Ferric oxide: a) with silica scanty, as anhydrous oxide (hematite, but
never magnetite), or as one of the four ferric hydrates (limonite, limnite,
turgite, gothite); h) with silica abundant, as one of the three ferric hydro-
silicates (hisingerite, chloropal, anthosiderite), or as an aluminum-ferric
hydrosilicate (?).

Ferrous oxide: a) commonly in replacement of magnesia, sometimes as
siderite or other carbonate; h) with silica abundant, as one of the two
ferrous hydrosilicates (ekmanite, chloropheite of Forchhammer) ; or (c) as
the aluminum-ferrous hydrosilicate (aphrosiderite).

Manganese oxide: a) as manganous oxide (manganosite), sesquioxide

138 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

(manganite) or dioxide (pyrolusite) ; b) as hydrate (pyrochroite) and car-
bonate (in wad, rhodochrosite, etc.) ; c) with siHca abundant, as manganese
hydrosilicate (bementite).

Lime: a) as a residual remnant of one of the calcareous silicates (augite,
diopside, tremolite, anorthite, etc.); b) as carbonate (calcite) or calcium-
magnesium carbonate (dolomite, ankerite) ; c) with silica abundant, as one
of the newly formed calcium hydrosilicates (gyrolite, okenite, xonotlite),
or as aluminum-calcium hydrosilicate, (sloanite ?).

Magnesia: a) with silica scanty, as oxide (periclase), hydrate (brucite),
ferro-magnesium hydrate (p\'Toaurite), aluminum-magnesium hydrate
(hydrotalcite), magnesium carbonate (magnesite, breunerite, mesitite) or
hydrocarbonate (hydromagnesite, hydrogiobertite, etc.); b) with silica
abundant, as one of two of the magnesium hydrosilicates (deweylite,
sepiolite) or as aluminum-magnesium hydrosilicate (pyrosclerite).

Alkalies: with alumina and ferrous oxide (as a chlorite); with lime,
as a hydrosilicate (certain zeolites).

It should here be noted that in a study of micro-aggregates of a different
origin, e. g., from development within a lower zone of metamorphism, a
quite different series of constituent minerals would need to be considered.
The preparation of any such series, in the present incomplete knowledge of
the conditions of origin of mineral species, would require careful investiga-
tion of associations, relationships and all other evidence at hand. One
conclusion from such study will be remarked in the series above given:
that many minerals, the occurrence of which in distinct and crystallized
specimens has been set down by the mineralogist as uncommon or even
very rare {e. g., brucite, periclase, deweylite, gyrolite, anthosiderite, etc.),
may yet be shown to occur abundantly, in dissemination through rock
formations and mineral aggregates in obscure or entirely invisible forms.

In calculation of mineral constitution from the analyses of such micro-
aggregates, the chemical formulas of the constituent minerals, so far as they
have been determined with certainty, may be accepted and used as absolute,
and as far preferable in most cases to any actual analysis of a mineral, on
account of the universal intermixture of impurities in the latter, even in the
best crystallized and apparently purest specimen.

The facts show, in my opinion,that all mineral substances have a definite
composition and character, that none are intermediate or transitional, that
even from decay or other mode of dissociation of a complex mineral com-
pound only independent minerals of simpler but exact composition are
derived. If this be true, we shall have little need of resort here to h}'po-
thetical chemical compounds but may perhaps rely entirely on determined
formulas for all calculations of mineral constitution.

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 139

It has been already intimated that one result of loose and vague mis-
apprehension of the essential and non-essential chemical components of a
crystallized mineral, or of the predominant mineral in a micro-aggregate,
appears to have been that the limitations in the laws of replacement in the
composition of a mineral have not always been clearly recognized; inclo-
sures have been mistaken for replacements. For example, in the two basic
magnesium hydrosilicates, deweylite and antigorite, magnesia may be
replaced by ferrous oxide, by manganous oxide, and probably by lime, but
never by metallic oxides.

Recast Analyses of Micro-aggregates.

A few examples of micro-aggregates, taken from my notes on minerals
of the magnesian hydrosilicate group, are presented below. They have
been selected to illustrate a variety of mineral constituents, identified in
these mixtures by this simple method, in contrast with the chemical formulas
on which the present acceptance of these mixtures as possible or certainly
independent minerals has been largely founded.

Fibrous "diabantachronnyn."

From Grafenwart, Voigtland. Analysis by Liebe, with the formula —
RO. SiOj + Mg(OH)2.

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

Ferrous
oxide

Magnesia

Water

Totals

31.56%

12.08%

21.61%

22.44%

11.78%

99.47

Prochlorite

16.43

12.08

16.86

9.38

6.56

61.31

Chrysotile

15.13

4.75

10.39

4.51

34.78

Nemalite

2.38

0.71

3.29

Periclase

0.29

0.29

In this calculation the alumina content is taken as the basis for estimating
the chlorite (or very likely a mixture of chlorites); the remainder of silica
for that of chrysotile, distinguished by Liebe under the microscope; the
remainder of the water for that of the fibrous magnesium hydrate, which,
as has been pointed out in a previous paper,^ has not been hitherto dis-
criminated from chrysotile in optical mineralogy.

1 Annals N. Y. Acad. Sci., XVI, 410-411. 1906.

140 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

The following is an example of a mere mixture of apparent complexity
of composition, but of comparative ease in determination of mineral con-
stitution.

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 141

a-

+

O

eS

3

s

(H

o

e+H

TS

^

V

o

O

.»s

OQ
0)

-a
-a

'<D

(U

•«

^

-(->

a

-«

-l-»

a>

• ^H

2

if

bo

;^

•s

1

M

3

"o

PL|

c«

CQ

^

w

m

>-,

a

a

<

03

(1
v
be

G

t-c

:3

-a

o

siBjox

d
o

OOiMCOOCOOOOOS
<© ^_ 00 00 CO lO CS --H 00_

t^ Ttl o" TJ*

CO 1— 1 1— 1

J9113^

5?

CO t^ o c^

(M_ Tjf iq ,-1

t^' co' --i o

piOB Dinoqj^o

CO

6

O

pioB oiiriTidins

to
d

d

aptipXquB
Diaoqdsonj

fe5

00

q

d

00

o
d

■epog

IM

d

d

■ESSB^OJ

00

d

?5

d

•BisauSBH

«o

d

1—t

OJ Tf CO
CO ^ —1

d »o ^'

r-l

8UII1

00

o
d

CO >0 00 IN

d d d d

apixo

snou^'3u'Bi\[

CO

d

CO

apixo snoiaa j[

o

CO

00

.—1

o
CO

oo'

gpixo 0III3J

CO
00

CO
00.

Buiuiniv

d

13.32
3.42

pplB OIUBIJX

00

T-H

d

00

I— 1

d

^ains

00

(M 05 05 O

•-I »: "^ °o.

oo' "5 CO d

1.2

Prochlorite

Deweylite

Picro-thomsonite

Hematite-ocher

Calcite

Gypsum

Apatite

Rutile

Hyahte

p

a
o

142

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

"Diabantite."

From Farmington Hills, Connecticut. Mean of two analyses by
G. W. Hawes; "A unisilicate of the pyrosclerite group, with the formula,
(§1^3 + J Ai) Sig + 3 H." Dana states that the figures "correspond to the
formula Rja (112)2 Sig Ogg + 9 aq., which is near to that of pyrosclerite," and
also:
"Comp.- H,8 (Fe, Mg),^ Al, S\, O,, or

12 (Fe, Mg)0.2Al203. 9 Si O3. 9 H2O."

In my calculation of the mineral constitution I have applied to pyroxene,
perhaps unwisely, the actual analysis of that mineral by Hawes from an
outcrop of diabase in the same region. It is apparent that " diabantite" is
not identical with "diabantachronnyn," nor is it at all likely that any two
specimens of either mixture are ever identical.

Hypothetical
constituents

d

S
3

<

s

3

e

13

.52

■a

m

Totals

33.46%

10.96%

2.56%

24.72%

0.39%

0.92%

16.52%

0.29%

9.96%

99.78

Pyroxene

3.49

0.24

0.72

0.39

0.92

0.65

0.29

0.08

6.78

(residual)

Enstatite

6.27

4.18

10.45

(residual)

Prochlorite

14.63

10.72

14.96

8.32

5.82

54.45

Ekmanite

5.69

9.04

1.60

16.33

Deweylite

3.38

3.01

2.03

8.42

Limonite

2.56

0.43

2.99

Periclase

0.36

0.36

"JoUyte."

From Bodenmais, Bavaria. Analysis by von Kobell,
Formula: (J R^ + § Ai)2SP + 4 H; it "resembles a
which the iron is replaced by alumina" (Dana).

hisingerite

m

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 143

Ferrous

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

oxide

Magnesia

Water

Totals

35.55%

27.77%

16.67%

6.66%

13.18%

99.83

Chloritoid

14.09

23.77

16.67

4.17

58.70

Deweylite

7.50

0.66

4.49

18.65

AUophane

2.34

4.00

3.51

9.85

Colloid silica

11.62

1.01

12.63

"Saponite."

From Kinneli, ^tr'.., Scotland. Average of thirteen analyses by Heddle.
"A hydrous silicate of magnesium and aluminum, but the material is
amorphous and probably always impure" (Dana).

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica
40.63%

Alumina

Ferric
oxide

Ferrous
oxide

Lime

Magnesia

Water

Totals

7.18%

7.96%

2.38%

2.14%

21.43%

21.76%

99.48

Pyrosclerite

18.87

7.18

2.38

2.14

12.26

5.68

48.51

Deweylite

10.33

9.17

6.19

25.69

Limonite

3.96

.67

4.63

Colloid silica

11.43

9.22

20.65

"Pilolite."

Mountain cork or leather, from Scotland. Average of seven analyses
by Heddle, with the formula: 4MgO. AIA. 10 SiOg. I5H2O.

."S
X

—

c3

4-3

c

CO

3

§.•3

0)

to

M

Hypothetical

a

S

g§

o;

g,

4)

OJO

"3

constituents

3

f-l

(->

S®

E

eS

eS

c3o

02

<

fa

fa

^

hJ

S

^

^-^

H

51.92%

8.48%

0.89%

2.45%

1.41%

0.98%

9.92%

14.75%

8.74%

99.54

Deweylite

11.17

9.92

6.70

27.79

Halloysite

10.00

8.48

4.50

22.98

Ekmanite

3.04

2.45

1.41

0.98

0.86

8.74

Chloropal

1.00

0.89

0.50

2.39

Colloid silica

26.71

2.19

8.74

37.64

144

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

"Aphrodite."

From T/angban, Sweden. Analysis by Delesse, with the formula:
MgO. SiOj. HgO. "A soft earthy mineral near sepiolite .... Perhaps
HgMg^ Si^. Oi5 but of doubtful homogeneity" (Dana).

Hypothetical constituents

Silica

Alumina

Magnesia

Water

Totals

53.50%

0.90%

28.60%

16.40%

99.40

Deweylite
Antigorite
Allophane
Hyalite

21.14

9.79

.53

22.04

.90

18.79
9.81

12.69
2.92

.79

52.62

22.52

2.22

22.04

"Picrofluite."

From Lupikko, Finland. Analysis by Galindo, with the formula:
4RO. SSiOj + 2CaF2 + SHjO. It has also been described as "a ser-
pentine intimately impregnated with fluorite" (Arppe), and as "probably
a mixture of fluorite with a magnesian silicate" (Dana). Neither the
formula nor these explanations account for the high percentage of magnesia
nor for the excess of lime (6.4 per cent) beyond that required in the possible
amount of fluorite. The deficiency in the total may be due only to in-
complete determination of fluorine.

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Ferrous
oxide

Man^an-
ous oxide

Lime

Cal-
cium

Magnesia

Water

Fluorine

Totals

29.00%

1.54%

0.78%

22.72%

(11.66%)

28.79%

8.97%

11.16%

98.30

Fluorite

(16.32==)

11.66

11.16

22.82

WoUastonite

6.85

6.40

13.25

Antigorite

22.15

1.54

0.78

19.84

6.61

50.92

Brucite

5.26

2.36

7.62

Periclase

3.69

3.69

"Webskyite."

From Amelose, Hesse. jNIean of two analyses by Websky, with formulas :
HeR^SiaOis + 6 aq. and H2(Mg, Fe) SiO, +^2 aq.

JULIEN, DETERMINATION OF MINERAL CONSTITUTION 145

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Alumina

Ferric
oxide

Ferrous
oxide

Magnesia

Water

Totals

35.85%

0.24%

10.32%

3.04%

19.68%

31.53%

100.66

Ferro-deweylite
Limonite
Prochlorite
Colloid silica

24.98

0.33
10.54

0.24

10.32

2.70
0.34

19.49
0.19

14.97
1.73
0.14

14.69

62.14

12.05

1.24

25.23

In this however the descriptive data are not sufBcient to determine the
exact condition of the alumina (as bauxite? or as a hydrosihcate?).

'Genthite."

From Texas, Pennsylvania, etc. Analysis by Genth, from Avhich it has
been pronounced "a gymnite, with part of the magnesium replaced by
nickel: 2NiO. 2MgO. SSiOj. 6H2O," or R,^ Mga NijSig O,

'16*

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Ferrous
oxide

Nickel
oxide

Lime

Magnesia

Water

Totals

35.36%

0.24%

30.64%

0.26%

14.60%

19.09%

100.19

Connarite

24.51

30.64

7.38

62.53

Deweylite

10.85

0.24

0.26

9.13

6.50

26.98

Brucite

5.47

2.46

7.93

Water

2.75

2.75

"Xylotile" (Mountain-wood).

From Schneeberg, Tyrol. Average of three analyses by Hauer, after
exclusion of water lost at 100° C. Probably an altered chrysotile (Kenngott).

"A very ferruginous chrysotile, of which part of the iron has been
oxydized by secondary processes" (Lacroix).

According to Liebe, it has been probably derived from alteration of
"diabantachronnyn,"

146

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Hypothetical
constituents

Silica

Ferric
oxide

Ferrous
oxide

Lime

Magnesia

Water

Totals

50.43%

18.97%

3.28%

0.85%

11.82%

14.63%

99.98

Chrj'sotile

15.95

3.28

0.85

11.82

4.76

36.66

Anthosiderite

32.04

18.97

2.13

53.14

Colloid silica

2.44

7.74

10.18

All intense pleochroi.sm possessed by this substance (very deep golden
3'ellow, bright yellow, to brownish yellow) differing entirely from that of
chrysotile or antigorite, agrees exactly with that characteristic of antho-
siderite — a satisfactory confirmation.

It can be claimed for hardly any one of the examples given above that
more than an approximation to the truth has been presented. With the im-
perfection of both analyses and descriptions as published, each interpretation
yet calls for special tests of the very specimens of these micro-aggregates
used in the analyses, for confirmation: e. g., strong alkaline reaction or
other evidence of free magnesia in "picrofluite" and " diabantachronnyn,"
and optical identification of prochlorite, chloritoid, etc., in the others. It
is certain that, in each of the specimens represented by these analyses, there
existed a certain intermixture of minerals the identity and exact proportion
of which should have been identified by the analyst. For such determina-
tion in any analysis certain accurate data are indispensable. In place of
the usual meagerness in description of physical properties, omission of
optical examination and common imperfection of the chemical analysis
itself, it is obvious that, in a proper investigation of any mineral, its complete
examination, physical and optical, should precede on the very specimen
used for the chemical analysis. Only under such conditions can exact
results be obtained from the universally heterogeneous materials which are
found in nature. It seems likely, however, from the results above shown,
through this old simple method, toward disclosure of latent mineral con-
stitution, that it may prove of advantage even if now applied to the series
of mineral substances whose chemical analyses have been published.

i

[Annals N. Y. Acad. Scr., Vol. XVIII, No. 4, Part II, p. 147. 15 April, 1908.]

THE CHESTER, NEW YORK, MASTODON.

The accompanying plate gives a facsimile reproduction of a sketch
and description of the skull and tusks of a mastodon found at Chester near
Goshen, N. Y., which seem to have some value on accoimt of the representa-
tion of the tusks in place. The sheet of legal cap paper, yellowed with age,
bearing the sketch in pencil and the legend in ink were found in December
1907, in an old book in the library of the Lyceum of Natural History, now
the New York Academy of Sciences. A transcript of the legend follows.

Delineated by P. S. Townsend, M. D.,

(from Nature) May 29, 1817.

Appearance of the Tusks of the Elephas Mastodonta , disinterred at Chester,
township of Goshen, Orange County, State of New York, May 29th, 1817; by Drs.
Mitchill, P. S. Townsend and Townsend Seely. The tusks are continuous with the
upper jaw the four teeth of which are observable at their base. These tusks are
nine feet in length, of pure ivory: becoming more and more of a bony nature before
they expand into the jaw where they are entirely of the same nature with tliat bone.
The tooth immediately situated upon the base of the tusk is 3 inches square, the one
adjacent 6 by 3. The circumference of the tusk at the base 26 inches. The position
of the jaw is horizontal and inverted. It lay about 6 feet below the surface of the
soil, which soil to that depth consisted of a loose black mould mingled apparently
with the comminuted fibres of sea- weeds and ha\T[ng the smell of Limus — it then
changed to a pure pale-bluish clay.

P. S. T.

N. B. The nasal bones (?) are observable at the divergence of the tusks & are
continuous with them.

Drs. Townsend (also spelled Townshend) and Mitchill were two of the
founders of the Lyceum of Natural History and were prominent scientists of
New York of the early part of the nineteenth century. Dr. Mitchell was
the first president of the Lyceum, serving from 1817 to 1823 inclusive. The
village of Chester is now in the to\\Tiship of the same name. No record has
been found showing the later history of this specimen.

E. O. HOVEY,

Recording Secretary.

147

[Annals N. Y. Acad, Sci., Vol, XVIII, No. 5, Part II, pp. 149-180. Pll. VI-VIII.
Author's separates published 23 April, 1908.]

THE PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN THE DRUMFISHES,
THE SEA-ROBIN AND THE TOADFISH.^

By R. W. Tower.

CONTENTS.

Introduction.

Anatomy of the swim-bladder.
The drumfishes:

Bearded drum (Pogonias cromis),
Squeteague {Cynoscion regalis),
Croaker (Micropogon undulatus),
Other drumfishes examined.
The sea-robin and the toadfish:

Sea-robin (Prionotus carolinus),
Toadfish (Opsanus tail).
Sound production in the dnmifishes:

Recorded observations and theories.
Experiments to determine cause of sound,
Experiments to determine character of muscular contraction,
Experiments to determine pressure of gas in swim-bladder.
Sound production in the sea-robin and the toadfish:

Experiments to determine cause of sound and character of mechanism.
Conclusions.
Literature cited.

Introduction.

The production of sounds by certain fishes has long been an interesting
subject of investigation. Some species, as Scomber brachyiirus, by rubbing
together the pharyngeal teeth make a noise resembling a harsh grunt; some,
as the puffer, or swellfish, make a similar sound by rubbing together the
incisor teeth of the upper and lower jaw. In other cases stridulation has
been recorded, and sounds are also said to be produced by the forcing of
air through the pneumatic duct in those fishes in which the air-bladder

1 Read by title at the meeting of the Academy on 13 April, 1908.

149

150 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

communicates with the exterior. Besides these kinds of sound production,
which are of no special interest in this discussion, there are tu'o others.
One is the drumming of the squeteague, croaker and other drumfishes
(Scisenidse) ; the other is the so-called grunt of the sea-robin (Prianotus)
and the common toadfish (Opsanus). With the difference in the kind of
sound made by the drumming and the grunting fishes there will be found
to be a distinct difference in the structure of the swim-bladder, which is
the organ chiefly involved in the production of sound by these species.

Anatomy of the Swim-Bladder.

The Drumfishes.

Bearded drum {Pogonias cromis). — The swim-bladder of the drum is
characterized by its large size and the enormous number of its diverticula.
The bladder occupies, as is the case in nearly all of the sciaenoid fishes,
the entire length of the abdominal cavity. The diverticula are finger-like
processes which arise laterally from the bladder and open into its large
cavity. These tube-like appendages in the adult ramify through the con-
nective tissue, and in many cases adhere firmly to the aponeuroses of the
neighboring muscles. The air-bladder itself lies free in the abdominal
cavity, attached on the dorsal side to the body of the fourth vertebra and
covered on the ventral side by the peritoneum, which is continued from
the parietal walls. When examined carefully, the air-bladder is seen to be
made up of three layers: the outside is of a hyaline character and is com-
posed of extremely tough fibrous tissue; the middle layer, which is sepa-
rated from the outer layer only with great difficulty, is connective tissue
containing elastic fibres ; the inner layer is a very delicate connecting tissue,
lined with pavement epithelium. Jager (1903) has recently discovered
that this inner layer does not cover the entire bladder-lumen, but on the
dorsal surface there is an oval space in which the inner layer disappears,
with the exception of the pavement epithelium. This space he calls the
"oval," and maintains that it can be increased or diminished by the action
of small muscles. In the middle layer ramify all the blood-vessels, which
break into small branches and then enter the inner layer, where, in the
region of the "oval," they form an anastomosing capillary net-work almost
as complete as is found in the "red-body." This net-work is thus sepa-
rated from the lumen of the air-bladder only by the single layer of pavement
epithelium. The function of the "oval," according to Jager, is the ab-
.sorption of oxygen and the diminution of the amount of gas in the bladders

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 151

of fishes having no pneumatic duct. Thus the "oval" and the pneumatic
ducts serve tlie same physiological function. Adhering to a portion of the
dorsal surface of the air-bladder, just posterior to the point of attachment
to the vertebrae in the male, is the central tendon of the two red drumming
muscles.^ Upon opening the bladder of the drum, there is found on the
inside, running almost the entire length, the red vascular body vv'hich has
been described as the blood gland, or "red body."

Squeteague {Cynoscion regalis). — In the squeteague the swim bladder
(fig. 1) is a long carrot-shaped organ, tapering to a point at the posterior
end, and sending out from the broad anterior end three diverticula —
two lateral horns and a central rounded "head." The dorsal surface of
the "head" is attached by its outer or fibrous tunic to the sides of the body
of the fourth vertebra, which broadens out to receive it. The lateral appen-
dages of the swim-bladder of the drum are wanting in the air-bladder of
the squeteague, which has nothing to mar its smooth even contour except
the two lateral horns already described, which arise from the most ante-
rior part of the organ. On the inside of the air-bladder is found the char-
acteristic "red-body," or "blood-gland," which is present in the drum.
The drumming muscles are present in the male squeteague only. Their
insertion is lateral in the common fascia of the rectus abdominis muscle,
about a half-inch from the mid-ventral line. The muscles, one on either
side, are bilaterally symmetrical and originate from a central tendon, which
lies free in the mid-dorsal line just above the swim-bladder and between it
and the kidney. The anterior extremity of this central tendon is inserted
by its middle third into the dorsal surface of the neck of the swim-bladder,
while the right and left thirds merge into the fascia that support the peri-
toneum. Posteriorly, in the region of the anus, the tendon narrows down
to a cup-shaped extremity that receives the tip of the swim-bladder, and
then gradually tapers to a point, which is inserted into the base of the first
anal fin-ray. A closed cavity is thus formed, bounded laterally by the two
drumming muscles, ventrally by the confluent abdominal muscles, and dor-
sally by the central tendon. This closed bag or cavity contains the viscera

' Dufossg (Annales des Sciences Naturelles, ser. V, vol. XIX. 1874, p. 39) has described in
Trigla lyra two red muscles which he called intra-costal muscles. From his description I am
unable to identify them with the "drumming muscle" just mentioned. In no case has it been
possible to find these "drumming muscles" in any of the Triglidce.

Dufoss6 attributed to these intra-costal muscles the function of motor agents of the skeleton.
"Considgres uniquement comme agents moteurs du squelette, ces muscles intra-costaux ont
evidemment pour functions: d'une part, de fl6chir latSralement ou de maintenir I'gpine dorsale
dans sa rectitude ordinaire, suivant qu'un seul muscle se contracte, ou bien que la contraction
de ces deux muscles est simultange, quand les os scapulaires leur servent de point fixe; d'autre
part, d'attirer en dedans ces derniers os, et par suite les scapulaires et les humeraux, (Cuvier),
lorsque la colonne vert6brale est pr6alablement fix6e." It is evidently from this supposed
function that Dufoss6 gave the name of intra-costals to these muscles.

152

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

and swim-bladder, the latter having the "central tendon" directly applied
to its dorsal surface.

The blood-vessels and nerves supplying the drumming muscles are only

771 S

VV-S

Fig. 1. Swim-bladder of Cynoscion regalis.

The two m. sonifici (m s) are shown laterally displaced, h, head; 1, lateral
horn; c t, central tendon of m. sonifici.

accessory branches from the arteries and nerves of the abdominal muscles.
An embryological study of the origin of these accessory blood-vessels and
nerves and their relation to the muscle at the time when it is first laid down

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 153

would be instructive. For the drumming muscles the name musculus
sonificus has been suggested and is used in the following discussion.^

In young squeteague two inches long, it is impossible to distinguish
macroscopically a differentiation of this muscle. But if a piece of the peri-
toneum with the underlying fascia is removed and examined under the
microscope there are seen striations typical of voluntary muscles. The
muscle fibres run in the direction of the short diameter of the fish, i. e.,
circularly around the air-bladder. These young squeteague have been
heard to "drum," and the contractions of the m. sonificiis can be easily
felt when the fish is held firmly in the hand. In the young this muscle
has not acquired the deep red color that so characterizes it in the adult.

&I> a. Cim

of

of

air-

air-

msv.

Lateral horns
bladder.

Hinder point
bladder.

The muscles which must
make the air-bladder
act as a sound pro-
ducing organ.

Fig. 2. Swim-bladder of Micropogon unduiatus after Sorensen.

Croaker (Micropogon undulatus). — Another scisenoid, known in Amer-
ican waters as the croaker, is of interest from an anatomical standpoint.
The difference between the bladder of this fish and that of the squeteague,
except for its being considerably smaller, is that the central head is not
present, and the two lateral horns are reduced to two very small tubes.
It is therefore an even more simple organ than that of the squeteague.
The two bilateral sonifici have the same arrangement in both animals,
and the description of the muscles of one applies equally well to those of
the other. Sorensen states that "the form of the air-bladder needs no
other description than that given in figure 9" (a copy of which is here
appended as fig. 2).

1 Dr. Hugh M. Smith and Dr. Theodore Gill suggested several anatomical names, from which
musculus sonificus was selected as being the most appropriate. The author is greatly indebted
to these two well-known ichthyologists for their assistance.

II'

154 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Sorensen made his dissection on one specimen preserved in alcohol, con-
sequently the diagram is somewhat misleading, as can be seen by com-
paring it with the bladder and muscle taken from a fresh specimen (PI. VI.
fig. 1). Bridge uses this figure from Sorensen to verify the following state-
ment: "In other fishes, the air-bladder, without possessing special muscles
of its own, may, nevertheless, be partially invested by tendinous or partly
muscular and partly tendinous, extensions from the muscles of the body
wall." This muscle (m. sonificus) cannot be considered an extension of
the muscles of the body wall but a unique, specific muscle which has been
developed for the purpose of sound production. The muscles with the
aponeuroses are united with the swim-bladder by means only of a tendon
on the dorsal side immediately anterior to the base of the horns, and in
no way attach themselves directly to the bladder, which is completely sur-
rounded by the muscles and tendons. Sorensen states: "According to
its structure, the air-bladder of this fish must be a sound-producing organ.
Most probably the contractions of the muscles will, for a moment, compress
the air-bladder and strain its dorsal wall, each of which operations must
separately be able to bring the air-bladder to produce sound." Sorensen
did not make any physiological experiments and based his conclusions
entirely upon anatomical data. In the light of experiments soon to be
described it is evident that he did not understand the "drumming" mech-
anism.

OtJier drumfishes examined. — Through the courtesy of Dr. Hugh M.
Smith (1905) of the Bureau of Fisheries, it has been possible for me to
examine specimens of the southern squeteague {Cynoscion nehuhsum, PI.
VI, fig. 2), the yellow-tail (Bairdiella chrysura, PI. VII, fig. 1), and the spot
(Leiostomus xanthurus, PL VII, fig. 2)} The anatomical relations of the air-
bladder and the m. sonijicus are so similar to those noted above that no
further description is necessary. In the spot the peritoneum is so pigmented
with black that the m. soiiificus is somewhat hidden.

The Sea-Robin and the Toadfish.

In these fishes there is found a swim-bladder which is so radically dif-
ferent in its outward appearances from that of the scitenoid fishes, and at
the same time is so characteristic, that attention is immediately attracted
to this organ. The sound produced, described as a grunt, differs markedly
in character from the drumming of the Scisenidie.

1 These drawings were made from dissections completed by T. E. B. Pope of the Bureau
of Fisheries.

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 155

Dufoss6 (1874) in his memoir on "Sons Expressifs Produits par les
Poissons d 'Europe" has given an accurate and complete anatomical de-
scription of the air-bladders of the European Zeus faber, Dactylopterus
volitans and various Triglidne. Inasmuch as the air-bladders of the Trig-
lidse of the North American waters differ in some respects from those de-
scribed by Dufosse, I will here state briefly the structure in the species
under examination, Prionotus carolinus, or the red-winged sea-robin, as
well as of Opsamis tan, or the common toad-fish.

Sea-robin {Prionotus carolinus).— The air bladder of Prionotus (Fig. 3)

A B

Fig. 3. SwiM-BLADDER OF PrIONOTUS CAROLINUS.

A, Viewed externally, i m, intrinsic muscle; c I, connecting lumen.

B. Longitudinally bisected, r, right lobe; g, internal septum; c o, central open-

ing of septimi.

is a deeply bi-lobed organ, occupying about two-thirds the space of the
abdominal cavity. The two lobes are connected near the anterior end by
a rather small tube. Along the outside portions of the respective lobes is
found a muscle, red in color, and running from the anterior end of the lobe
to the posterior end. The muscles adhere strongly to the underlying coat
of the air-bladder, and can be separated from it only with difficulty. The
muscle-fibres run in the plane of the short axis of the bladder. These
muscles correspond to the "intrinsic muscles" of Dufosse. The bladder

156

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

is not connected with the exterior by a pneumatic duct, Giinther (1880)
to the contrary notwithstanding, for the entire bladder has been removed
from the abdominal cavity without losing any of the contained gas, an
operation which would be impossible if there were any means of commu-
nication between it and the exterior.

The air-bladder itself consists of three layers — an external, a middle
and an internal — together with the pair of muscles just described. The
outer and middle layers are composed of thick, compact tissue, containing
both elastic and non-elastic fibres. The inner membrane is a mucous

im

IrT/h

A B

Fig. 4. Swim-bladder of Opsanus tau.

A. Viewed in situ, i m, intrinsic muscle.

B. Viewed externally.

tissue provided with numerous blood vessels. Lying in this tissue are
found also the blood glands or red-bodies which were described in the
bladders of the scitenoids.

The left lobe (fig. 3 B) in all specimens of Prionotus is divided into two
parts by a partition formed of the internal tunic or membrane. In the
centre of this partition is a small opening, a little larger than the head of
a pin. The right lobe is never divided. This perforated partition was
present in all specimens examined of both sexes. The cmbryological

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 157

history of this partition has never been investigated. There is no difference
in the structure of the swim-bladder in the male and female, the intrinsic
muscles being present in both. It is evident that we have here anatomic-
ally a very different structure from that in the swim-bladder of the Scise-
nidse, a fact which will play a very important part in the interpretation of
the physiological experiments soon to be described.

|;i Toad fish (Opsamis tau). — The swim-bladder of O'psanus (fig. 4) is
relatively a much smaller organ than in Prionotus. When examined ex-
ternally (fig. 4B), it seems to be deeply bi-lobed on the anterior half; but
when viewed in longitudinal section (fig. 5), it is seen that less than one
half of the organ is actually divided. The swim-bladder is supplied with

■im'

CO

ini'

A B

Fig. 5. SwiM-BLADDER OF OpSANUS TAU.

A. A specimen longitudinally bisected showing the position of the internal

septum (s). c o, central opening of septum; i m, intrinsic muscle.

B. Another specimen longitudinally bisected showing the variation of the

internal septum (s) .

the same intrinsic muscles as that of the sea-robin. The muscles arise
at the most anterior part of the right and left lobes respectively, and are
separated posteriorly by only a small tendon. The muscular tissue is
thick and strong, the fibres running transversely to the long diameter of
the swim-bladder. An internal septum divides the bladder into two parts,
an anterior and a posterior. The septum is perforated by a small opening,
which forms the only means of communication between the two cavities.
In the posterior cavity alone is found the blood gland.

Most interesting is the great variation found in the position of the trans-
verse septum in different specimens. In some cases, the partition is fully

158 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

one-third of the distance from the posterior end (fig. 5 A) while in others it
is less than one-sixth of the distance (fig. 5B). Indeed, in the large number
of specimens examined, no two were found to be alike. Whether the vari-
ation is accompanied by any change in function, I was unable to determine.

Sound Production in the Dnimfishes.
Recorded Observations and Theories.

It has been noticed by many fishermen that the common squeteague
at times makes a very plain and unmistakable drumming noise. As to
how this noise is produced they can give no explanation nor is there any
account of it in scientific literature, with the possible exception of Dufoss6's
memoirs, which seem to be too little known at the present time. Their
observations do not tell us whether it is the male^, female, or both that
produce this characteristic noise. In the anatomical discussion, it was
found that only the male was supplied with the red drumming muscle
which, from its relation to the air-bladder, was considered to be connected
functionally with the latter organ. Further observations demonstrated
that the drumming occurred only in those animals in which this red muscle
was present — that is, in the male squeteague. In some other species,
as Micropogon undulatus, drumming occurs in both male and female, aid
likewise the m. sonifici are present in both sexes.

In the rather limited amount of study that has been given to the noises
produced by these fishes, some of the conclusions are mere deductions
from anatomical data, without any experimental or physiological proof.
In other instances, the authors confuse the sounds produced by fishes of
entirely different orders, and which have swim-bladders both anatomic-
ally and pliysiologically different. For this reason it is very difficult to de-
duce correct conclusions from their writings.

As noted in a previous paper, Aristotle spoke of fishes that produce
sound by some mechanism involving their air-bladder. The fact was thus
known to fishermen and scientists very early; but no scientific explanations
were offered nor were any experiments made which would account for
these noises. Cuvier (1834) writes that "these fishes [scisenoids] swim in
a troop and send forth a bellowing louder than that of the gurnards, and

' Since the above was written Dr. H. M. Smith has published the results of some obser\-a-
tions, which show that both male and female of Micropogon make the drumming sound and
that the male only in Pogonias, Sciwnops, Cynoscion, Leiostomiis and Bairdiella produce the
drumming sound. (Science, vol. 22, 1905, p. 376.)

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 159

it has occurred that the fishermen, guided by their noises alone, have taken
twenty scioence at a single throw of the net." The fishermen assure us
that the noise of the scmnce is suflSciently loud to be heard through twenty
fathoms (120 feet) of water, and that they are careful from time to time to
place their ears over the edges of the boat, that they may be directed by the
noise. Some say that it is a dull humming sound ; others that it is a rather
sharp hissing. Some fishermen contend that the males alone make this
noise in spawning time, and that it is possible to take them by imitating it
and without employing any bait. That these fishes do produce noises
that can be heard long distances is an undisputed fact.

The fish of this family best known to us is the "weak-fish," described
by Dr. Mitchill under the name of Labnis squeteague. It was known by
the Narragansett Indians as the squeteague; and by the French of New
Orleans as the trout. The fishermen of Cuvier's time "attributed to it
certain dull sounds similar to that of a dnun, which are heard sometimes
under the water and only in the season Avhen it is abundant."

Another sound-producing fish of American waters which is described
by Cuvier is the drum {Pogonias croviis). Cuvier states that "various
accounts are given concerning the nature of the noise of these drums."
According to Dr. Mitchill, it is when they are taken out of the water that
they send forth this noise, but Schoepf says that "it is under the water
that this noise is dull and hollow; that several individuals assemble around
the keel of ships at anchor, and that then their noise is most sensible and
continuous." This agrees with the report made by Lieut. John White,
U. S. N., in 1824, in which he describes how his crew and himself, while
at the mouth of the river Cambodia, were astonished by some extraordi-
nary sounds which were heard around the bottom of the boat. It was
like a mixture of the bass of the organ, the sound of bells, the guttural
cries of a large frog and the tones which imagination might attribute to an
enormous harp; one might have said that the vessel trembled with it.
These noises increased, and finally formed a imiversal chorus over the en-
tire length of the vessel and the two sides. The natives told Lieutenant
White that the noises were produced by a troop of fishes. M. Humboldt
describes a similar phenomenon in the South Sea on February 20th, 1803.
Towards seven in the morning, he says, the whole crew were awakened by
this extraordinary noise, which resembled drums beating the air. It was
afterwards learned that the noise was produced by one of these sciffinoids.
Cuvier, in speaking of the same species, states that, "it would be an object
of curious research to find out the organs in these fishes which seem to pro-
duce such strong and such continuous sounds, and that at the bottom of
the water and without any communication with the external air. Most

160 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

of the sciaenoids have a large natatory bladder, very thick, provided with
very strong muscles, but the bladder has no communication either with
the intestinal canal, or with the exterior generally." This represents all
that was actually known up to the time of Cuvier concerning the mechan-
ism of the sound-producing organs. It was evidently thought by Cuvier
that the air-bladder and attending muscles were of some importance in
producing this phenomenon.

Somewhat later (1860), Holbrook stated that "frequent examinations
of the structure and the arrangement of the air-bladders, as well as obser-
vations on the living animal just taken from the water, when the sound is
at intervals still continued, have satisfied me that it is made in the air-bladder
itself; that the vibrations are produced by the air being forced by strong
muscular contraction through a large opening, from one large cavity, that
of the air-bladder, to another, that of the cavity of the lateral horn; and
if the hands are placed on the sides of the animal, vibrations will be felt
in the lateral horn, corresponding wdth each sound."

It was not until Dufosse published his memoir on the sounds and noises
produced by the fishes of Europe, in 1874, that we had any physiological
explanation of the phenomenon in the scisenoid fishes which is based on
actual experiments. In 1864, Moreau published the results of his experi-
ments on the "grunting" mechanism in the Triglidse, a process, however,
which is entirely different from the "drumming" of the Sciaenidfe, and
should not be confounded with it. With regard to the sounds produced
by certain muscles Dufosse says,

Le phenomene physiologique connu generalement sous le nom de trepidation
ou tremulation musculaire, et que WoUaston a assimil^, avec raison, a un mouvement
de vibration, n'a pour ainsi dire ete observe que chez rHomme, et n'a jamais ete
le sujet d'une etude approfondie, soit au point de vue biologique, soit au point de
vue la physique proprement dite, quelques physiologistes pensent meme encore
que ce mouvement assez rapide pour produire un leger bruit, designe sous le nom
de bruit de rotation par Laennec et sous celui de bruit de contraction des muscles par
d'autres auteurs, est trop faible par lui-meme et trop peu important par ses effets
pour devenir jamais d'un certain interet en physiologie generale.

This is a concise statement of what was known concerning the physiology of
this noise at the time when Dufosse wrote his memoir. Dufosse divided
his work into two propositions, viz:

1. Quelques muscles de certains poissons bruyants deviennent en se contractant

susceptibles d'un mouvement de vibration:

2. Ce mouvement est le principe des sons que font entendre ces animaux.

To prove these propositions, Dufoss^ made two physiological expcri-

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 161

ments. In the first, he inserted his finger into the stomach of a lyre capa-
ble of producing an intense noise. During the production of the noise,
he noticed an intense vibration which coincided exactly in duration -with
the sounds heard by his ear. He then punctured the wall of the air-blad-
der and drew out all the gas. The sound ceased, but the vibrations could
still be felt. He then removed the entire swim-bladder, and applied his
finger successively to the muscles and aponeuroses which lie alongside the
vertebral column, and he found that all the organs were in repose except
the intra-costal muscle, which vibrated and gave to his finger the same sensa-
tion as when the air-bladder was in its natural position.

In the second experiment, Dufosse opened the abdomen of a lyre just
in front of the anus, and extirpated the swim-bladder entirely ("j'extirpe
la vessie pneumatique tout entiere"). He then inserted an artificial blad-
der ("poche membraneuse") and inflated it. The fish commenced again
to produce a noise similar to that made before the operation. In another
he cut the nerve supplying the intra-costal muscles, first the right and then
the left. After both were cut, the noise ceased and could not be again
renewed.

From these data, Dufosse argues that there are tv\'o factors in the pro-
ducing of the noise, \t1z: the contraction of the intra-costal muscle, which
is the primary cause of the sound, and secondarily, the reenforcement of
these vibrations of the swim-bladder. The producing of the noise is volun-
tary. Dufosse recognizes many difficulties in this explanation, however,
because the facts do not agree with those of theoretical physics, as can be
seen from the following quotation: —

" Le mecanisme de la production des sons chez ces poissons a pour complement
la transmission des \abrations sonores des muscles a la vessie qui est en contract avec
eux. Les parois de est organe commvmiquent ces vibrations au gaz qu'elle renferme,
et ceux-ci ^'ibrent de telle fagon comme le prouvent surabondamment mes deux
premieres experiences, que I'intensite de ces vibrations est incomparablement aug-
mentee. D' apres ce resultat et en considerant que la vessie est une cavite close a
parois membraneuses et souples se raoulant si exactement sur la surface des organes
qui les enviromnent qu'elles ne peuvent vibrer que comme elles le feraient si elles
^taient reellement adherentes par tous les points de leur superficie a la masse de ces
organes on ne pent expliquer, conformement aux principes dc la physique, le ren-
forcement des vibrations sonores qu'en admettant que le volume des gaz contenus
dans vessie, ou, ce qui est le meme chose, que la capacite de cet organe a naturelle-
ment des rapports exacts de grandeur avec cells des nombres de vibrations sonores
que lui sont transmises. L'exactitude des rappoits que suppose cette explication
ne s'accordant pas avec plusieurs faits ichthyologiques, entre autres avec les inces-
sants changements de volume que submit necessairement la vessie pneumatique
quand le poisson vient du fond de I'eau a la surface ou s'enfonce dans la profandeur
des mers, cette explication n'est acceptable qu'en admettant que si ces rapports

162 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

existent reellement ils doivent pouvoir varier d'une certaine quantite sans que le
degre de renforcement des sons soit grandement modifi^."

In speaking of the ScisenidEB, Dufosse says that the sound is produced
for the most part by muscles; but a little later, in speaking of Psevdo-
sciaena aquila, he says

" Le mecanisme de la production des sons chez les iudividus de I'espece Scicena
aquila est plus compliqu^ que celui des poissons dont j'ai parl6 jusqu' k present
(lyre). Je n'ai nullement la pretention de donner la th^orie de ce mecanisme."

Just why Dufosse makes this statement is not intelligible, for all the drum-
ming fishes of America that have been examined have the same mechanism,
and it is very evident that the sound is produced in exactly the same way.
As Dufosse examined only European forms, however, he may have ob-
served a difference in structure that is not present in the American species.
The fact that Dufosse stated that he could not explain the mechanism
in Sciosna, while for the Gurnard lyre his exj')lanation was not in accordance
Avith physical phenomenon, has possibly led more recent ichthyologists to
ignore his work. Thus we find that Giinther (1880) in speaking of the
A merican drum {Pogonias cromis) says,

"It is still a matter of uncertainty by what means the "Drum" produces sounds.
Some naturalists believe that it is caused by the clapping together of the pharyngeal
teeth, which are very large molar teeth. However, if it be true that the sounds are
accompanied by a tremulous motion of the vessel, it seems more probable that they
are produced by the fishes beating their tails against the bottom of the vessel in
order to get rid of the parasites with which that part of their body is infested."

That these explanations of Giinther are unwarranted will be seen from
experiments soon to be described.

Sorensen (1895) disagrees with Dufosse s statement that it is the vibra-
tion of the muscles while contracted which produce the sound and that
the air-bladder only intensifies the sound. Sorensen considers the sound
as being produced by vibrations of the air in the air-bladder and of the
walls of the latter when set in motion by the muscles with the fascia of
which it is connected.

Jordan and Evermann (1902) say that "most of the species make a
peculiar noise, variously called croaking, grunting, drumming, or snoring,
supposed to be produced by forcing air from the air-bladder into one of
the lateral horns."

We have presented to us then, four distinct mechanisms in the Sciffi-
noids :

1. Muscular tone; the vibrating muscle producing a sound which is
intensified by the air-bladder (Dufosse).

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 163

2. Clapping together of pharyngeal teeth (Gunther).

3. Vibrations of air in air-bladder and of the walls of the latter when

set in motion by certain muscles (Sorensen).

4. Forcing of air from air-bladder into one of lateral horns (Holbrook,

Jordan and Evermann).

Experiments to Determine Cause of Sound.

That the explanation given by Gunther is wrong can be very easily
seen from the following experiments, in all of v/hich the animals were kept
alive by artificial respiration, i. e. by irrigating the gills with a stream of
fresh water.

Experiment I. The air was drawn from the swim-bladder of a squeteague by-
means of a trochar and the drumming immediately ceased.

a. The stomach was then filled with water. The drumming returned but not
as loud as normal.

Expenment. II. — An incision one inch long was made in the mid-ventral line.
Through this a portion of the air-bladder was pvilled out but the drumming con-
tinued.

a. The bladder was now amputated and the drumming ceased.

b. A collapsed rubber balloon was then inserted into the abdominal cavity,
and, as soon as it was inflated, the drumming returned with apparently normal
intensity and pitch.

c. The rubber balloon was filled with salt water instead of air. The drum-
ming continued until the water was allowed to escape; then it ceased. The tone
is low and apparently changed but little under the different conditions.

Experiment III. — The air-bladder of a male squeteague was removed. The
drumming ceased. The air-bladder from a female squeteague, which can produce
no noise, was inserted into the abdominal cavity of the male, and the drumming
immediately returned.

These three experiments show conclusively that the "clapping together
of the pharyngeal teeth" has nothing to do with the production of the
drumming noise in the squeteague. It is also shown in experiment III
that there is no difference between the function of the bladder in the male,
which drums, and that of the female, which does not drum, as far as the
noise-production is concerned.

Experiment IV. — The entire viscera (intestines, spleen, liver, reproductive or-
gans and air-bladder) were removed from a male squeteague. The drumming
stopped, and the sonificus contracted as usual, but there was no noise. A rubber
balloon filled with air was then inserted into the abdominal cavity. The drumming
again returned, but was not of normal character.

a. The balloon was filled with water and the drumming continued, but was
weaker and of apparently different pitch.

164 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

This experiment shows that an inflated rubber balloon can take the
place of all the abdominal organs in respect to noise-production; although
it does not prove that these organs may not play some part in the normal
mechanism.

To determine whether there is any experimental basis for the view held
by Jordan and Evermann, viz: that the drumming is produced by forcing
air from the air-bladder into one of the lateral horns, the following experi-
ments were undertaken.

Experiment V. — An incision about one inch long was made in the mid-ventral
line of a male squeteague. The air-bladder was ligatured in the middle, thus sepa-
rating the organ into two chambers, — the anterior containing the lateral horns,
and the posterior remaining a simple closed ca\'ity. Drumining, however, went on
as in nonnal animals.

a. The part of the bladder posterior to the ligature was punctured. The
drumming continued only in the region of the anterior part of the bladder, which
remained inflated.

b. Another animal was prepared in the same way, and the part anterior to the
ligation was punctured. The drununing continued only in the region of the posterior
portion of the bladder, which remained inflated. In this part of the bladder there
are no lateral horns.

c. The posterior end of the bladder was then folded into the anterior part of the
abdomen. The drumming noise then came from the anterior part of the abdomen
in the region of the inflated half-bladder.

d. The anterior half of the bladder was amputated, leaving the posterior part
still inflated. This was inserted at different places and the drumming noise occurred
wherever this part of the bladder was placed.

Experiment VI. — An incision was made in the mid-ventral line of a large
"drummer," about half way between pectoral and anal fins. At the right angles
to this incision, longitudinal incisions were made on both sides, extending nearly to
the region of the kidney. These incisions were made through the drumming muscles.
The air-bladder and -vascera were lifted up with forceps, and the remaining part of
the drumming muscle and central tendon was cut. This separated the entire muscle,
tendon and insertion into halves — an anterior and a posterior part. The drum-
ming still continued on both sides of the bisection. In order to show this still more
completely, the anterior half of the abdomen was raised by inserting two fingers,
which prevented the drumming in this (anterior) part, while the posterior gave the
same characteristic noise. Next, the posterior half of the abdomen was raised in
the same maimer, and the drumming stopped in the posterior part but continued
in the anterior. Upon removing the fingers, the noise continued as in normal ani-
mals.

a. The air-bladder was ligatured in the same place as the bisection of the muscle.
The drumming occurred as before. Again the anterior and the posterior parts were
in turn raised, and the drumming was made to occur in either part at ^nll.

The two experiments V and VI, as well as the previous ones, prove
conclusively that the lateral horns have nothing to do with producing the

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 165

drumming noise ; and the forcing of air into the lateral horns, if such takes
place, is not the true explanation.

It remains now to consider the views of Dufosse and of Sorensen. Is
this drumming a muscular tone, i. e., a sound produced by the vibrating
muscle and intensified by the air-bladder (Dufosse), or do certain muscles
set into vibration the air in the air-bladder and the walls of the latter
(Sorensen) ?

Experiment VII. — The entire abdominal viscera except the air-bladder were
removed. Contractions of the muscles occurred, but no noise. The rubber balloon
was inserted into the abdominal cavity and inflated (the air-bladder being intact
and inflated). The drumming returned. When the balloon was allowed to collapse,
the noise ceased.

c. The abdominal ca\'ity was packed tight with cloth (the air-bladder being
intact and full of air). The drumming was loud, and when the cut edges were drawn
together, it increased to a nonnal di-um. When the cloth packing was removed,
the muscle still contracted, but no noise was heard. When the ca\'ity was packed a
second time with cloth, the drumming became again audible.

Experiment VIII. — The entire viscera, including the air-bladder, were next re-
moved. Notwithstanding the large hemorrhage that occurred, the sonifici still
contracted. The rubber balloon was inserted and inflated wath air. The drumming
noise returned of apparently the same pitch but not so loud as normal.

a. The central tendon was then cut longitudinally into two parts. The muscles
on either side contracted rhythmically, as could be seen from the vibrations of the
cut ends of the tendon. There were, however, no vibrations of the abdominal
muscles, such as are seen in normal animals. This was as might be expected, because
after cutting the central tendon the two drtimming muscles have nothing to work
against. The inflated rubber balloon now produced no sound. This seems to show
that the air-bladder does not act as an intensifier of muscular tone. The experiment
suggests that the air-bladder functions either in maintaining the tension inside of the
abdominal cavity, or as a vibrating organ or both.

Experiment IX. — Incisions were made on both sides of the median line of the
abdomen. After this operation the drmnming remained perfectly normal. The
m. sonifici were then cut from their origin on the abdominal muscles. One side was
amputated first, and the drvraiming still continued. While the one on the opposite
side was being cut, the drumming died away gradually until the drumming muscle
was severed its entire length, when the noise ceased. Yet at this time the muscle
contracted, as could be easily felt by touching it with the finger.

If now the air-bladder served as an intensifier of the muscular vibrations,
Ave might ask why it suddenly ceases to fulfill that function in the above
experiment. Also, in experiment II c, drumming occurs when the air-
bladder is replaced by a rubber balloon filled with water. This water-
bladder cannot be looked upon as an intensifier of sound or a resonator.

The foregoing experiments show that any part of the muscle can produce
the drumming when conditions are suitable. We have also seen that by

166 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

lifting a part of the abdominal muscles, the drumming over that part im-
mediately ceases. That the most ventral parts of the abdomen are active
in drumming is evident from the vibrations of this part of the body of a
squeteague. The whole mid-ventral area, from pectoral fins to anus,
pulsates in a strong rhythmical manner, which corresponds to the con-
traction of the m. sonificus as can be readily seen from the appended kymo-
graph tracings.

Experiment X. — An incision one inch long was made about half way between
the pectoral fins and the anus and at right angles to the long axis of the body. Great
care was taken in order not to injure the drumming muscles. Between the ventral
muscles and air-bladder was inserted a piece of sheet cork about two and one-half
inches long and two inches wide. This stretched severely the mid-ventral part of
the abdominal muscle and held it rigid, so that it could not be pulled in when the
sonificus contracted. No noise was produced, yet the muscle apparently contracted
in a perfectly normal manner. This would again show that the dnunming is not a
muscular tone intensified by the air-bladder.

The drumming is undoubtedly a sexual character, for in the squeteague
the male only makes this noise. The female not having developed any
drumming muscles is not able to produce this sound. In some other
scisenoids, as the croaker, both male and female produce the drumming,
but the former is said to produce a much more intense noise than the female.
I have often observed that the drumming muscles in the male croaker are
much thicker and heavier than in the female.

The conclusion is that by each contraction of the m. sonificus a sudden
blow is dealt which throws into vibration the abdominal walls and organs.
The physics of this phenomenon is very complex, as undoubtedly all of the
abdominal parts play a r61e. But the organ that chiefly participates in
the vibration is the swim-bladder with its walls made tense by the pressure
of the contained gas. It is well known that in man the chest walls and
abdominal walls can be set into irregular vibration by being percussed and
that there is here a resonance effect produced by a resonance cavity or
semifluid material which is selectively set in resonance vibration. The
gas pressure in the air-bladder as well as the character of the muscular
contractions which will be immediately described indicate the same con-
clusion.

In all of the above experiments the pitch of the drumming sound was
not determined with scientific accuracy. Undoubtedly if the tone could
have been determined by physical apparatus the pitch, which to the ear
was apparently the same, would have been found to be different in the
various experiments.

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES lt)7

Experiments to determine character of the muscular contraction.

The character of the contraction of the red drumming muscles has never
been studied, nor has the relation of the contractions to the pitch of the
drumming been accurately recorded. Dufosse has given the pitch of the
drumming of the meagre as well as he could determine it by the ear alone.
The following experiments were performed in canying on the present study:

Experiinent XI. — The first experiment was made so as to record the number
of vibrations produced by the abdominal tissue in the mid-ventral line during the
process of drumming. To accomplish this, a light wooden lever was made, with a
piece of sheet cork two inches long and one half inch wide attached at the bottom,
and a fme wire inserted in the top at right angles to the lever. The cork was held in
place on the abdomen of the squeteague by two rubber bands going around the fish
and over each end of the cork strip. The revohnng drum of the kymograph was
then placed so that the wire point would trace on the smoked paper of the drum.
Thus when the animal commenced to drum, the vibration of the part of the abdomen
under the lever would be traced by the writing point on the smoked paper. The
drum of the kymograph revolved once in 4.848 seconds, and its circimaference was
48.5 cm. The tracings are given on PL VIII, fig. 1. The number of vibrations
per second, as determined by comparison with the tracings of a tuning fork vibrated
100 times per second, is 24.

Exferiment XII. — A control experiment was made the next day on another
squeteague, but with the drum of the kjTnograph revohing only once in 20.202
seconds. The number of vibrations should agree or at least be within the limits of
experimental error. The tracings are given on PI. VIII, fig. 2. The number of
vibrations is again 24 per second.

In both of the above experiments the lever Wiis placed on the mid-ventral
line just posterior to the pectoral fuis.

Experiment XIII. — The next experiment was to determine whether the anterior
and posterior ends of the abdomen vibrated synchronously, or whether the \abration
passed over the abdomen like a wave, from anterior to posterior, or \dce-versa.
Mere observation as well as the resting of the fingers on the anterior and posterior
parts at the same time detected that all the muscle-fibres contracted synchronously.
To determine this more accurately, two levers were arranged — one being placed
just posterior to the pectoral fins, and the other just anterior to the anus — so that
they should write under each other on the smoked paper. The traces indicated
that the entire abdominal mechanism vibrated synchronously; hence all the fibres
of the two drumming muscles contract at the same time under stimuli controlled by
the central nervous system of the animal.

Experiment XIV. — In a fresh male squeteague an incision one inch long was
made on one side through the thick, white abdominal muscles imtil the red m.
sonificus was exposed. The cork base of the lever was inserted through this opening
until it rested on the red muscle within. With the lever in this position and the

168 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

animal on its side., the writing point shoiild not move up and down in a perpendicular
plane, but should move horizontally, back and forward. This, then, should give in
the kjTnograph reading a series of dots, repre.5enting the apes of each cur\-e. Such
a tracing was recorded on the drum of a kj-mograph. The ^■ibrations were 24 per
second. From this experiment it is seen that the muscle itself and the abdominal
tissue \-ibrate at exactly the same rate.

Experiment XV. — Another experiment was made to show the effect of sub-
stituting an inflated rubber balloon for the air-bladder. The nimiber of vibrations
was 24 per second. It is thus evident that the \-ibrations produced in the presence
of the rubber balloon are the same as in the normal condition of the animal.

The five preceding experiments agree in the rate of ^■ib^ations of the
abdominal part which is in immediate relation to the drumming muscles,
and which is directly connected ^vith sound production according to our
present views. It vras next necessary to record the contractions of the
muscle itself, and for this purpose the following two experiments were
performed.

Experiment XVI. — An incision two inches long was made in the mid-ventral
line just posterior to the pectoral fins. Through this op>ening was inserted a slender
v,-ire ■n-ith a sharp hook on one end and an eye on the other. The hook v.-as fastened
directly into the fibers of the m. sonificus. The eye was attached to an ordinary
muscle-lever which was supplied with a writing point. The kymograph was then
placed so that it would receive the tracings made by the -^-riting point.

In this experiment none of the \"iscera were disturbed and the noise produced
differed in no way from that of the normal animal. To measure the time, a tuning
fork was used, whose double vibrations of 100 per second were registered on the
revoh-ing drum. The rate of the contractions is 24 per second, which is identical
with the experiments made on the abdominal walls. As is shown in PI. 'STII, fig.
3, the ampUtude of the contractions is much more than in the experiments made
on the abdominal walls. This is undoubtedly due to the release in tension caused by
the separation of the right and left abdominal portions to which these muscles are
attached, together with some resistance caused by the rubber bands. To determine
this point another experiment was made in which the \"ibrations of the abdominal
wall were registerd by a wire hook attached at one end to the rectus abdominis and
the other to the muscle-lever. With this method the ampUtude of \-ibration is
nearly the same as that of the muscles. It was noticed, too, that when the ampli-
tude was the greatest the loudest sound was produced in both the experiments on
the abdominal waUs and on the drumming muscle.

Experiment XVII. — Experiment X\T was repeated, except that the air-bladder
was punctured. The drumming noise stopped. The contractions of the drumming
muscles, registered as in the preceding experiment, are given on PI. ^'III, fig. 4.
The number of contractions computed from those of a tuning fork is 24 per second.

It is veiy- e\ndent that there is no difference between the contractions
when the swim-bladder is full of air and when it is collapsed, and that this
organ has no effect upon the contractions of the drumming muscle. This

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUXD IX CERTAIN FISHES 169

is especially well demonstrated in the tracings where the register of the
muscular contractions in an animal with the bladder intact is placed directly
over these from an animal in which the bladder is collapsed (PI. VIII, fig. 4).

Experiment XVIII. — The viscera, including the swim-bladder, were removed
from a squeteague after an incision had been made in the mid-ventral line from the
pectoral fins to the anus. The wire hook of the registering apparatus was inserted
into the middle of the central tendon. No noise was produced. The number of
contractions was 24 per second. The amplitude of vibration was less than some
registered by the muscle and more than others. The experiment revealed no new
factor.

In the experiments just described each contraction of the muscle, repre-
sented in the tracing by the apex of the curves, is simultaneous with the
sound produced, and thus the rapid series of contractions institute the roll
or "drumming."

Experiments to determine the pressure of the gas in the swim-
bladder.

Experiments were made to discover, if possible, the pressure exerted on
the air-bladder by the contraction of the drumming muscles.

Experiment XIX. — The pressure of gas in the air-bladder of a female squeteague
(which has no drumming muscles and can not drum) was determined by making an
incision one inch long in the mid-ventral line two inches anterior to the anal fin.
The posterior end of the swim-bladder was ligatured and then amputated just back
of the ligature. The open end of a small mercurial manometer was inserted and tied
by another ligature. The first ligature was then removed and the mercury rose to a
height of 4 mm., which was produced by the normal pressure of the gas in the air-
bladder. The animal was kept alive by artificial respiration.

a. The same experiment was then tried on the swim bladder of a male sque-
teague, both while it was quiet and while it was drmnming. In the quiet animal, the
pressure rose to 4 nmi. and remained there until drumming occurred, when it rose to
6 mm. In other words, the increased pressure brought about by the contraction of
the drumming muscles equalled 2 mm. of mercury. During the di'umming the
meniscus of the mercury could be seen to oscillate between 4 mm. and 6 mm., as the
muscles successively contracted and then relaxed.

One interesting feature is that in all the animals examined the normal
pressure in the bladder was 4 mm. in the male and female — the large and
small animals alike. The gas pressure within the swim-bladder maintains
a tension on the elastic walls, while the increased density of the gas due to
the pressure tends to produce a louder sound than would othersvise occur.
These experiments show that

170 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

1. The chief cause of the drumming is the contraction of the drumming
muscles.

2. As the myogram distinctly shows, the contraction of the drumming
muscles is of the nature of a series of simple contractions.

3. These muscles contract at a definite rate, viz.: 24 vibrations per
second.

4. By the force of each contraction the abdominal organs are set into
vibration, especially the walls of the air-bladder.

5. The elastic walls of the air-bladder are always tense, because of the
pressure of the contained gas. This pressure is increased each time the
drumming muscles contract.

6. The vibration of the tense walls of the air-bladder and the contained
gas are sufficient to produce the drumming noise.

7. The sound produced is low. The actual number of sound vibrations
was not determined.

Sound production in the Sea-Eobin and the Toadfish.

Experiments to Determine Cause of Sound and Character of

Mechanism.

If a sea-robin is examined under artificial respiration, the single twitch
of the abdomen when a grimt is made can be very easily observed. If
the animal is opened along the mid-ventral line, both the contraction of
the intrinsic muscles and the single twitch of the swim-bladder can be
observed. The noise is of the same pitch and loudness after the abdomen
has been opened as before. The removal of all the viscera except the air-
bladder has no effect on the noise produced. It is noticed that the two
muscles contract simultaneously.

Experiment XX. — aVn animal under artificial respiration was opened, and
various parts of the bladder were stimulated by a current from an induction coil, viz. :

a. One of the two nerves suppljnng the bladder was stimulated. A perfectly
normal grunt was produced.

b. The fibrous part of the bladder was then stimulated. A normal grimt was
not produced.

c. The muscle itself was stimulated directly. Again a perfectly normal sound
was produced.

These experiments show only that artificial stimulation of either nerve
or muscle will cause a normal sound to be produced.

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 171

Experiment XXI. — The swim-bladder was removed from a fresh specimen and
laid upon the operating table. The nerves and the muscles of the bladder were
then stimulated successively as in experiment XX. In each case there was a grunt
of the same pitch and intensity as is produced by the normal animal.

This shoAvs very clearly that the sound-producing mechanism of the
sea-robin is entirely within the bladder and its intrinsic muscles. This
mechanism, then, stands in direct contrast to that of the drumfishes, just
discussed.

Experiment XXII. — The swim-bladder was removed from a sea-robin. The
muscle was stimulated and an audible grunt was produced. The bladder was then
placed on an improvised registering apparatus, so arranged that the bladder was
connected with a muscle lever and writing point. The muscle was then stimulated.
An audible grvmt resulted. The vibration of the bladder was registered on the drum
of the kymograph. The grunt is produced by one single sharp contraction of the
intrinsic muscle (PI. VIII, fig. 6). This was repeated each time that the muscle was
stimulated.

a. One of the lobes of the bladder was now punctured. Both lobes collapsed.
Through the opening was inserted the rubber balloon (collapsed). This was in-
flated; the muscle was thus superimposed over the inflated rubber balloon. The
muscle was then stimulated as before. It contracted and produced a grunt the same
as in the isolated bladder full of air. Moreau (1876) concluded that it was the
vibration of the perforated internal septum which was the direct cause of phonation.
That this septum vibrates is true, but from the foregoing experiment it would seem
that the walls of the air-bladder are the chief Aabrating organ. In the sea-robin
the left lobe only possessed the internal septum, but it made no difference with the
sound produced whether the right lobe or the left lobe was used for the experiment.

b. The uninjured lobe was filled vnth salt water and closed by a ligature. The
muscle was then stimulated by a current from an induction coil. A grunt occurred
as when the swim-bladder was filled \vith air, although not so loud. These con-
tractions were recorded by means of a kymograph and are given on PI. VIII, fig. 7.
On comparing the record with those given on PI. VIII, fig. 6, it is evident that the
curves have about the same amplitude, but are not so well sustained.

Experiment XXIV. — The swim-bladder was removed from a sea-robin as
quickly as possible. The muscle was stimulated by a current from an induction
coil. An audible grunt resulted. This sound was more intense when the bladder
rested on the table. It is interesting to note that this particular animal did not
produce any noise while alive. The isolated bladder was then placed on the regis-
tering apparatus, and records were obtained under single stimulations and also by
stimulations continued for several seconds. The records are given on PI. VIII, fig. 8.
The character of the curve is changed by the continued stimulation, the muscles
going into incomplete and then complete tetanus. Tetanic contraction does not
appear to be the normal procedure, but is produced by artificial stimulation. And
as far as could be determined, the sound was produced at the beginning of the tetanus,
i. e. at the first up-stroke of the lever, and died out during the remainder of the
contraction. The loudest grunts were produced at single full contractions of the
intrinsic muscles. The sovmd produced starts with a grunt, which gradually dies
out. It does not resemble drumming.

172 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

a. The bladder was then punctured and all of the air expelled from both lobes.
The muscle was again stimulated, but there was no sound, although the muscle
contracted as usual. The collapsed rubber balloon was inserted into one lobe of the
bladder, and then inflated. Upon stimulation a grunt was produced. The bladder
was now inflated still more, and upon stimulation a grunt of higher pitch was pro-
duced. When the bladder was inflated still more, the pitch became yet higher.

b. The rubber balloon was now filled with sea-water and the muscles stimulated.
A grunt was produced, although the pitch was apparently changed.

It is very evident then, that in the sea-robin and the toadfish the swim-
bladder with its intrinsic muscle is an organ for the production of sound.
By the contraction of the intrinsic muscle the tense walls of the air-bladder
are made to vibrate, thus producing the sound.

These grunts can be imitated very closely by drawing the forefinger and
thumb towards each other over the surface of an inflated rubber balloon,
especially if the rubber is dry or has been resined.

Conclusions.

I. The scisenoid fishes that make a drumming noise have specific sound-
producing muscles which are only superficially attached to the swim-bladder.
For this drumming muscle the name musculus sonificus has been proposed
and adopted.

II. The chief cause of the drumming noise is the contraction of the m.
sonificus, which produces a vibration of the abdominal walls and organs,
especially the swim-bladder.

III. The sea-robin and the toadfish, which make a grunting noise, have
muscles which are intrinsically connected with the swim-bladder and are
known as intrinsic muscles.

IV. The cause of the grunting noise is the contraction of the intrinsic
muscles which produce a vibration in the walls of the air-bladder.

V. The mechanism in the Scisenoidae is adapted to the production of
rapidly repeated sounds or rolls.

VI. The mechanism in the sea-robin and the toadfish is adapted to the
production of sounds repeated at more or less long intervals.

TOWER, PRODUCTION OF SOUND IN CERTAIN FISHES 173

Literature Cited.

CuviER, Georges. The animal kingdom arranged in conformity with its organiza-
tion, by the Baron Cuvier, with supplementary additions to each order, by
Edward Griffith and others. Vol. X, Class Pisces, with supplementary addi-
tions, by Edward Griffith and Charles Hamilton Smith. London, 1834.

Bridge, T. W. Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii, 1904, Fishes, p. 359.

DuFossE. Recherches sur les bruits et les sons expressifs que font entendre les
poissons d'Europe et sur les organes producteurs de ces phenomenes acoustiques
ainsi que sur les appareils de I'audition de plusieurs de ces animaux. Annales
des Sciences Naturelles, 5me ser., t. xix, 1874, art. 5, 53 p., pi. 16, 17, 18, 19,
and t. XX, art. 3, 134 p.

GtJNTHER, A. An introduction to the study of fishes. 1880.

HoLBROOK, J. E. Ichthyology of South Carolina. 1860. [2nd ed.]

Jager, a. Die Physiologic und Morphologie der Schwimmblase der Fische. Archiv
fiir die gesammte Physiologic, bd. xciv, 1903, p. 65-138.

Jordan, D. S., and Evermann, B. W. American food and game fishes. 1902.

LiCHTENFELT, H. Litcratur zur Fischkimde, p. 68, 1906.

MoREAU, A. Sur la voix des poissons. Comptes Rendus de I'Academie des Sciences,
Paris, 1864, Aug. 29, p. 436.

Recherches experimentales sur les fonctions de la vessie natatoire. Annales

des Sciences Naturelles, 6me ser., t. iv, 1876, art. 8, 85 p.

Smith, H. M. The drumming of the drumfishes ''Scisenidse) . Science, n. s. vol.
22, 1905, p. 376.

SoRENSEN, W. Are the extrinsic muscles of the air-bladder in some Siluroidse and
the "elastic spring" apparatus of others subordinate to the voluntary produc-
tion of sounds? What is, according to our present knowledge, the function of
the Weberian ossicles? Journal of Anatomy and Physiology, vol. xxix, n. s.
vol. IX, 1895, p. 109-139, 205-229, 399-423, 518-552.

Om Lydorganerhos Fiske. Kjobenhaven, 1884.

White, J. Voyage to the seas of China. 1824.

PLATE VI.

(175)

, PLATE VI.

Fig. 1. Swim-bladder of Micropogon undtjlatus.

In normal position resting on the central tendon which joins the m. soni-

ficus of either side.
The two lateral horns extend back over the bladder three-fourths of its
entire length.
Fig. 2. Swim-bladder of Cynoscion nebulosum.

In normal position resting on the central tendon which joins the m. soni-
ficus of either side.

(176)

Annals N.Y. Acad. Scr.

Vol. XVIII, Plate VI.

. -ff^^^'

j

i

PLATE Vn.
(177)

PLATE VII.

Fig. 1. Swim-bladder of Bairdiella chrysura.

In normal position resting on the central tendon which joins the m. soni-
ficus of either side.
Fig. 2. Swim-bladder of Leiostomus xanthurus.

In normal position resting on the central tendon which joins the m. sonificus

of either side.
The undissected portion at the anterior of the bladder shows how the two
m. sonifici completely inclose the swim-bladder.

(178)

Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.

Vol. XVIII, Plate VII.

PLATE VIII.
(179)

PLATE VIII.

Kymograph Records of Sound-producing Swim-Bladders,

Fig. 1. Squetague. Normal swim-bladder. Twenty-four vibrations per second
(rapidly revolving drum).

Fig. 2. Squeteague. Normal s-nim-bladder. Twenty-four vibrations per second
(slowly revolving drum).

Fig. 3. Squeteague. Myogram of m. sonificus. Twenty-four vibrations per
second.

Fig. 4. Squeteague. Myogram of m. sonificus.

a. S^\im-bladder normal, b. Swm-bladder collapsed.

Fig. 5. Timing fork having one-hundred double \ibrations per second. Kymo-
graph drum revolving at same rate as for Figs. 1, 3, and 4.

Fig. 6. Prionotus. Swm-bladder removed.

Fig. 7. Prionotus. Swim-bladder removed and filled with sea-water.

Fig. 8. Prionotus. S^\im-bladder removed. Prolonged stimulation.

(180)

l

Annals N.Y. Acad. Sci.

Vol. XMII, Plate VIII.

Fis. 1.

Fiir.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4. a
h

'^''C^

Vy --X

Fig. 5.

' A/WVAWWWWWVWWVX ' . VVV\AAA/*,A/V A'W^/V^A^^l^VV^^^W^VVvv-^AAr^•^^wv'wvsArf>^(■w^^^*^^-•^^

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7. i_

Fig. S.

IAnnals N. Y. Acad. Sci., Vol. XVIII, No. 6, Part II, pp. 181-263. 11 May, 1908.1

THE NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF THE GENUS IPOM(EA.»
By Homer Doliver House, B. S., M. A.

I^^^RODUCTION.

A comparative study of specimens of the ConvolvulacecB, represerrting
the species placed by Linnaeus^ in Ipomcea and Convolvulus, shows that
the two groups as there constituted, are far from homogeneous. The type
of Convolvulus is Convolvulus major albus, Toumefort, pi. 17 = (Convolvulus
sepium L.). The species included in Ipomoaa by Linnaeus do not accord,
except in part, with the diagnosis given by him in the Genera Plantarum
(1737), where it is stated that the stamens are exserted, and pi. 39 of Toume-
fort' is cited. This is Quamoclit Joliis tenuiter incisis & pinnatis (=Ipo-
mcea quamoclit L.). Under most circumstances this would establish it as
the type of the genus, but it must be remembered that the genus Quamoclit
was an accepted and valid genus before Linnaeus called it Ipomcea and the
genus has since been restored to generic rank by Moench.^ In the 5th.
edition of the Genera Plantarum (1752), the Toumefort reference to pi. 39
is still retained, with the addition of "Voluhilis Dill. Elth. 318." The
first species figured by Dillenius under Volubilis is V. zeylanica pes-triginus,
pi. 318. f. 4il' (=Ipomosa pes-triginus L.)

In deference to historical usage and long continued uniformity, the
writer does not believe it necessary to restrict Ipomcea to the group of species
typified by Ipomcea quamoclit L., but is inclined to accept the species first
figured by Dillinius under Volubilis, if it is necessary to designate a t^-pe
for the genus Ipomcea. Without doubt the plant of greatest economic im-
portance is Ipomcea batatas (L.) Lam. but as that was placed in Convol-
vulus by Linnaeus and was known as Batatas * in pre-Linnaean literature,
it has nothing to recommend it as an acceptable type of the genus. If /.

1 Presented in abstract to the Academy at the regular meeting on 9 March 1908. Manu-
script deUvered to Secretary 10 March, 1908.

2 Species Plantarum, 1753; ed. 2, 1762-63.

3 Institutiones rei Herbarise, 1700.

* Rumph. Amb. 6: 367. pi. 130. 1750
sMoench, Meth. 453. 1794.

181

182 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

quamoclit were to be recognized as the type of Ipomcea, the present genus
Quamoclit^ would have to take the name Ipomcea. This would cause a most
sweeping change of names, which would be neither logical nor conductive to
the future stability of its nomenclature.

No historical review of the genus will be attempted here, but the cita-
tions of species and synonyms is made as complete as possible, with the
object of supplying the absence of a bibliography and historical sketch of
the genus, and its divisions. The treatment of the genus Ipomcea in the
following pages is in many respects similar to that of Choisy,^ Meissner,^
Grisebach,* and Asa Gray.^ The writer includes Batatas Choisy, Pharbitis
Choisy, Leptocallis G. Don and Bomhycospermum Presl, in Ipomosa; while
the following genera are excluded as worthy of generic rank, Operculina
S. Manso, Quamoclit (Toum.) Moench, (incl. Mina Llav. & Lex.), Exo-
gonium Choisy, Calonyction Choisy, Turhina Raf. and Rivea Choisy.

The writer is under deep obligations, for valuable suggestions and aid,
to Dr. N. L. Britton of the N. Y. Botanical Garden; Dr. J. N. Rose and
Mr. J. H. Painter of the U. S. National Museum; Dr. B. L. Robinson
and staff of the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University.

The revision of the genus here presented is based upon the collections
in the following institutions, the letter preceding each being used to indi-
cate the locations of the specimen in the citation of specimens in the following
pages.

(N). National Herbarium, U. S. National Museum, Washington, D. C.

(Y). New York Botanical Garden, New York, N. Y.

(C). Columbia University Herbarium in the N, Y. Botanical Garden.

(G). Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.

(M). Museo Nacional Mexicana, Mexico City, Mex. (Herb. Manual
Urbina).

(J). Dept. of Agriculture, Jamaica; Hope Gardens, Jamaica, B. W. I.

Synopsis of the genus Ipomcea.

IPOM(EA L. Sp. PI. 159. 1753.

Annual or perennial climbing or trailing vines or sometimes upright
shrubby or tree-like plants. Leaves alternate; blades entire, angled, lobed

1 Moench, Meth. 453. 1794.

* In DeCandolle Prodromus 9: 335-396. 1845.

3 Meissner, in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 200-370. 1869.

4 Fl. Br. West Indies, 466-476. 1861.
s Syn. Fl. N. Am. 21; 207-224. 1878.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMOEA 183

or divided, usually petioled. Flowers solitary on axillary peduncles or in
cymes, rarely in raceme-like clusters. Sepals 5, membranaceous or rather
fleshy, sometimes becoming leathery, often herbaceous, closely imbricated,
sometimes elongated. Corolla funnelform or funnelform-campanulate,
rarely salverform, the tube often constricted within the calyx, the limb
usually spreading, the plicae ending at the middle of the margin of each
lobe, rarely between the lobes. Stamens 5, included, rarely exserted.
Ovary 2-, 3-, 4- or rarely 5-celled. Styles united. Capsule mostly septi-
fragally 2-, 3-, 4- or 5-valved, sometimes thick-walled and elongated. Seeds
glabrous, pubescent or hirsute on the angles, often with a long wool-like
coma on the dorsal angles.

Key to the Sections of Ipomoea.

Plants erect, stout, perennial, shrubby or tree-like;

leaf-blades rarely cordate. SECTION I. ORTHIPOMCEA.

Plants twining, creeping or prostrate, stout or
slender; leaf-blades often cordate.

Sepals herbaceous, often elongated and hairy;

ovary usually 3-celled. SECTION II. PHARBITIS.

Sepals coriaceous, membranaceous or sub-
herbaceous; rarely elongated; ovary usu-
ally 2- or 4-celled. Section III. BATATAS.

Key to the Subsections.

I. ORTHIPOMOEA.

Shrubby below or with stout, erect or ascending herbaceous
stems.

Sepals lanceolate, acuminate; plant silvery. 1. Argyrophyllae.

Sepals ovate or ovate-oblong, usually obtuse or acute;

foliage not silvery but often pubescent. 2. Leptophyllae.

Arborescent, erect and woody. 3. Arborescentes.

II. PHARBITIS.

Inflorescence densely capitate or leafy-bracted. 4. Cephalanthae.

Inflorescence not conspicuously bracted or capitate.
Ovary typically 3- or 5-celled.

Outer sepals becoming different from the inner ones, cor-
date or truncate and often conspicuously broadened
at the base. 5. Heterophyllse.

Sepals not becoming cordate or truncate nor conspicu-
ously enlarged in fruit.

184

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Leaf-blades entire or variously 3-lobed.
Leaf-blades palmately 5-divided.
Ovary typically 2-celled; blades often 3-lobed.

6. Hederaceae.

7. Cissoides.

8. Tyrianthinae.

III. BATATAS.

Stems prostrate or creeping, not twining.

Stems trailing or twining, at least the tips twining.

Seeds with dorsal or marginal coma longer than the seed or
completely covered with long hairs (Eriospennse) .^
Leaf-blades divided to the petiole into 3 to 9 stalked

or sessile leaflets. 10

Leaf-blades entire or, if lobed, not divided to the peti-
ole.
Pedicels thickened and fleshy, beset with tentacular

outgrowths or setae. 11

Pedicels not conspicuously thickened, neither tentac-
ular nor setaceous.
Inflorescence racemose, suberect or pendant; seeds
covered on all surfaces with long wool-like
hair.
Inflorescence cymose, paniculate or the flowers soli-
tary; seeds with dorsal or marginal hairs only
Leaf -blades deeply 5-lobed.
Leaf-blades entire or 3-lobed, rarely 5-lobed.
Seeds glabrous or pubescent, at least without a conspicuous
coma (Leiospermae).
Leaf-blades palmately or pedately lobed nearly or quite
to the petiole; stems slender. 15.

Leaf-blades entire, toothed or 3- to 5-lobed.

Sepals small, less than 5 mm. long. 16.

Sepals larger, 6-20 mm. long, or longer.

Sepals thin and membranaceous, mostly obtuse, un-
equal; roots enlarged and tuber-like, 17.
Sepals coriaceous; roots rarely tuber-like.

Sepals very unequal. 18.

Sepals equal or nearly so. 19.

9. Erpipomoea.

13.
14.

Dactylophyllae.

Setosse.

12. Bombycospermse.

Palmatse-
Jalapse-

Pedatisectae.
Microsepalae.

Emeticae.

Anisomerae.
Aequisepalae.

Section I. ORTHIPOMCEA.

Erect, bushy, shrubby or tree-like perennials; leaf-blades rarely cordate
or lobed; often short -petioled ; corollas mostly large and showy; sepals
coriaceous or leathery; capsules thick-walled, often elongated; seeds with
long wool-like hair on the dorsal angles, or the angles long-hirsute.

1 In cases where it has not been possible to determine with any certainty whether the
seeds are hairy or not, the species has been grouped with the Leiospermae.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 185

1. Argyrophyllse, Plants silvery-pubescent and more or less tomentose;'
sepals acuminate, lanceolate; corolla white. (Ipomoea § Argywphylloe
Baker & Rendle, in T. Dyer, Fl. Trop. Afr. 4^: 135. 1905.)

One species ia North America. 1. /. ciervensis.

1, Ipomcea ciervensis Painter; House, Bot. Gaz. 43:408. 1907.

Shrubby below, 30-60 cm. high, densely silvery-pubescent throughout except
the corolla; leaf-blades sessile or nearly so, oblong-lanceolate, acute or obtuse and
somewhat 3-lobed, 4-6 cm. long; peduncles 1 cm. long; bracts linear-spatulate or
subfoliaceous; sepals ovate-lanceolate, attenuate, about 15 mm. long; corolla
white, about 6 cm. long, pubescent without in bud and strigulose on the plicae when
expanded.

Type locality: Hacienda Ciervo, Queretaro, Mexico.
Distribution: Known only from the t}^e locality.
Specimens examined: Rose, Painter & Rose 9660, 1905 (t}^e — N, Y).
Altamirano 1557, 1905 (N).

2. Leptophyllse. Foliage pubescent or glabrous, not silvery; leaf-
blades entire (divided in /. Pringlei & I. ancisa); sepals coriaceous, ovate
to ovate-laceolate, obtuse; corolla large, purple or white. (IpomoBa §
suffruticoscB Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9: 353. 1845.)

Corolla white or cream-colored.

Sericeous-pubescent; outer sepals much shorter than the

inner.
Glabrous or nearly so.

Leaf-blades linear-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate ; sepals

subequal.
Leaf-blades pinnately divided, 5-10 cm. long, sepals very
unequal.
Corolla purple, lilac or pink.
Plant pubescent or hirsute.
Leaf-blades subsessile, hastately toothed at the base.
Sparingly pubescent; sepals 10-15 mm. long.
Densely pubescent; sepals suborbicular, 8-10 mm.
long.
Leaf-blades not toothed at the base.

Leaves 2 cm. long or more; sepals acute, 8-13 mm.

long.
Leaves less than 1 cm. long, woolly-white; sepals obtuse,
5-6 mm. long.
Plant glabrous or nearly so.
Leaf-blades pinnately divided, 2-4 cm. long.
Leaf-blades entire, linear-lanceolate.

2.

/. petrophila.

3.

I. longifolia.

8.

I. ancisa.

4.

I. starts.

5.

I. jaliscana.

6.

I. durangensis

9.

I. Icnis.

7.
10.

I. pringlei.
I. leptophylla.

186 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

2. Ipomoea petrophila House, Bot. Gaz. 43: 401. 1907.

Stems erect from a large root, pale and finely tomentulose above, 30-60 cm.
high; leaf-blades lanceolate, 4-10 cm. long, 3-nerved and obtuse at the ends, finely
sericeous pubescent beneath; sepals unequal, oblong, obtuse, the inner ones 8-11 mm.
long; corolla white with a pale purple throat, 6-8 cm. long, glabrous; the pedimcles
1-3-flowered, 1-5 cm. long; capsules ovoid-conical, 14-16 mm. high, thick-walled.

Type locality: Near Chihuahua, Mexico.
Distribution: Rocky hills, northern Mexico.

Specimens examined: Pringle 340, 1885 (tj'pe — N). Santa Eulalia
plains, Wilkinson, 1885 (N).

3. Ipomoea longifolia Benth. PI. Hartw. 16. 1839.— Small, Fl. South-

eastern U. S. 962. 1903.

Convolvulus Schumardianus Torr. Bot. Marcy's Rep. 291. 1853.
Ipomoea Carletoni Holzinger, Contr. Nat. Herb. 1: 211. 1892.
Convolvulus Queretanensis Sesse & Moc, Fl. Nov. Hisp. in La Naturaleza II. 1: 27.
1887.— Fl. Mex. 1. c. II. 2: append. 36. 1893.

Type locality: Mexico.

Distribution: Prairies and plains, Oklahoma and Texas to Arizona
and south in Mexico to Queretaro and Durango.

Illustrations: Bot. Reg. pi. 21. Contr. Nat. Herb. 1: pi. 17.

Specimens examined: Oklahoma: Carleton (N); Blankinship (G).
New Mexico: Wright 1617, 1851. Arizona: Tourney 2580 (Y); Lemmon
2834; Wilcox 375. Mexico: Durango, Palmer 229 (Y, N). Sonora:
Thurber 710. Queretaro: Rose, Painter & Rose 95U (N, Y); Hartweg 97
(G). CYnhudihwdi'. Palmer 297. kgn^sCaWenies: E.W. Nehon 3887.

4. Ipomoea stans Cav. Ic. 3:26. 1794.— Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9:

355. 1845.

Convolvulus stans H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 96. 1819.
Convolvulus firmus Spreng. Syst. 1: 613. 1825.

Convolvulus sinuxiius Sesse & Moc, Fl. Nov. Hisp. in La Naturaleza II. 1: 24. 1887.
— Fl. Mex. 1. c. II. 2: append. 38. 1893.

Type locality: Matritense.
Distribution: Northern and western Mexico.
Illustrations: Cav. 1. c. pi. 250. Altamirano, Mat. Mex. pi. 282.
Specimens examined from Coahuila, San Luis Potosi, Guanajuato,
Hidalgo, Valley of Mexico, Orizaba and Oaxaca.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 187

5. Ipomoea jaliscana House, Muhlenbergia 3: 39. 1907.

/pomoea stons var. Mrsuto Robinson, Proc. Am. Acad. 29 : 319. 1894.

Differs from /. stans by its more conspicuously hirsute stems and leaves, the
sessile leaf-blades which are relatively broader and more deeply lobed at the base;
sepals suborbicular, 6-8 mm. long.

Type locality: Rio Blanco, Jalisco.
Distribution : Jalisco .

Specimens examined: Palmer 324, 1886 (type — G, N, C). Pringle
4488, 1893 (G, N).

I 6. Ipomoea durangensis sp. nov.

Stems erect, 50 cm. tall, finely sericeous-pubescent, densely so above, silvery on
young parts; leaf-blades elUptical-oblong, 2-3 cm. long, 5-15 mm. wide, obtuse;
peduncles 1 cm. long or less, 1-flowered; sepals subequal, lanceolate, acute, 8-13
mm. long, densely silky-pubescent; corolla slender funnelform, 6-7 cm. long, violet-
purple with a white tube, plicEe pubescent without, the limb 5-6 cm. broad; sepals
enlarged in fruit with subspatulate tips (not accrescent); capsules globose-ovoid,
subacute, 15 mm. high, thick-walled, 2-celled; seeds minutely pubescent with a
short coma of hairs on the dorsal angles.

Mexico; Durango, E. W. Nelson 4639, 1898 (type, sheet No. 332692
— N, dupl. G), 4664, 1898 (N — 332718, G). Palmer 866, 1896 (N, Y, G).

^ 7. Ipomoea pringlei A. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. 22 : 307. 1887.

f Ipomcea sescossiana Baillon, in Bull. Soc. Linn. Par. 1: 385. 1883.

Tall, erect and rigid; leaf-blades pinnately divided into 5-8 linear or filiform
segments, 15-30 mm. long; peduncles stout, 1-flowered, as long as the leaves; sepals
oblong, rounded, 7-8 mm. long; coroUa blue or purple, 6-7 cm. long; capsules ovoid,
12-14 mm. high on reflexed pedicels, 2-celled; seeds tomentulose with an incon-
spicuous coma on the dorsal angles.

Type locality: Chihuahua.

Distribution : Hilly regions of northern Mexico.

Specimens examined: Chihuahua, Pringle 782, 1886 (type — G, N,
Y). 579, 1885 (G). E. W. Nelson 6276, 1899 (N). Durango, E. W.
Nelson 4729, 1898 (N).

8. Ipomoea ancisa sp. nov.

ResembUng /. Pringlei; leaf-blades 5-10 cm. long, the segments filiform, 2-5
cm. long, .5-1.5 mm. wide; peduncles very stout, 6-11 cm. long, 1-flowered; sepals
very unequal, orbicular-ovate, obtuse, with scarious margins; corolla slender-
fimnelform, white, 7-8 cm. long, the limb 6-7 cm. broad.

188 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Mexico : Chihuahua, between Colonia Garcia and Pratt's ranch, below
Pacheco, E. W. Nelson 6276, 1899 (type, sheet No. 369993 — ^).

^ 9. Ipomoea lenis sp. nov.

A dwarf, perennial, shrubby plant with thickened, woody base; stems erect,
10-30 cm. tall, densely woolly or silky pubescent with white hairs; leaf-blades sessile,
oblong, obtuse at both ends, 6-10 mm. long, 2-4 mm. broad; flowers solitary in the
upper axils and often crowded; peduncles 5-8 mm. long; sepals equal, ovate-lanceo-
late, obtuse, 5-6 mm. long, the outer ones silvery- pubescent; corolla fuimelform, 5-6
cm. long, blue, glabrous, the limb 4-5 cm. broad, 5-lobed.

Mexico: Zacatecas; Near Berriozobal, E. W. Nelson 3889, July 8,
1896 (type, sheet No. 266883 — N, dupl. G).

10. Ipomcea leptophylla Torr. in Frem. Rep. 95. 1845. — Emory,
Rep. pi. 11.— Morris in Plant World 7: pis. 5 & 6.— Small, Fl.
Southeastern U. S. 964. 1903.— Roth. Bot. Wheeler 205. 1878.

Convolvulus Caddoensis Buckley in Proc. Phila. Acad. 1862: 6. 1862.

Type locality: Upper Platte.

Distribution: Dry soil, plains of South Dakota and southeastern
Montana to Texas and New Mexico.

3. Arborescentes. Erect, woody, arborescent or shrubby perennials,
often several m. tall; leaf-blades oblong-ovate to narrowly or triangular-
ovate, rounded, truncate or subcordate, rarely subsagittate at the base;
sepals coriaceous, obtuse; corolla white, rarely pink or purple; capsules
narrowly ovoid, or oblong ; the coma of hairs on the seeds very long. (Ipo-
mcea Sect. Orthipomosa, § Arborescentes, Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 358. 1845.

Seeds with black coma on all surfaces.

Twigs and leaves puberulent or glabrous; leaf-blades
cordate-sagittate or truncate.

Leaf-blades oblong, acuminate. 11. /. fistulosa.

Leaf-blades ovate, short-acuminate. 12. I. glahriuscula.

Twigs and leaves densely canescent; leaf -blades ovate-
cordate. 13. /. nicaraguensis.
Seeds with white coma only on the dorsal angles.

Corolla and sepal densely woolly without. 14. /. murucoides.

Corolla and sepals pubescent or glabrous, not woolly.
Foliage more or less densely pubescent; veins promi-
nent beneath on the blades.

Leaf-blades ovate, cordate. 15. /. arborescens.

Leaf-blades, oblong, rounded at the base. 16. /. cucrnavacensis .

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 189

Foliage glabrous or nearly so.

Sepals hairy within, 12-16 mm. long. 17. /. intrapilosa.

Sepals glabrous within and without.

Leaf-blades 2-3 cm. long; sepals 8-10 mm. long. 18. /. calva.
Leaf-blades 7-13 cm. long; sepals 10-12 mm.
long. 19. /. wolcottiana.

11. Ipomoeafistulosa Mart.; Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 349. 1845. —
Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 239. pi. 81. 1869.— Rose, in
Gard. & For. 7: 366. 1894.— Small, Fl. Southeastern U. S.
963. 1903.

Batatas crassicaulis Benth. Bot. Voy. Sulphur 134. 1844.
Ipomoea texana Coulter, Contr. Nat. Herb. 1: 45. 1890.

Type locality: Brazil.

Distribution: Southern Mexico to Central America, Brazil and Peru,
chiefly along rivers near the coast. Adventive northward to Texas and
South Carolina.

Specimens examined from South Carolina, Texas, Vera Cruz, Chiapas,
Acapulco, Tepic, Guatemala and Nicaragua.

; 12. Ipomoea glabriuscula House, Bot. Gaz. 43: 409. 1907.

Resembling the preceding, but glabrous; leaf-blades ovate, shallowly-cordate,
minutely pubescent beneath; peduncles 4-12 cm. long; sepals unequal, the inner
6-7 mm. long; corolla white, glabrous or nearly so without.

Type locality: Guatemala.

Distribution: Guatemala.

Specimens examined: Heyde, 1892 (type — N, 266072).

^13. Ipomoea nicaraguensis House, Bot. Gaz. 43 : 409. 1907.

Ipomoea fistulosa var. nicaraguensis Donnell Smith, Bot. Gaz. 19: 256. 1894.

Twigs velvety-canescent; leaf-blades broadly ovate or reniform-ovate, velvety-
canescent beneath, acute, shallowly cordate, 7-12 cm. long; sepals broadly ovate,
rounded, minutely tomentose, 7 mm. long; corolla pink or whitish, tomentose with-
out on the plicae and tube.

Type locality: Rio de las Lajas, Nicaragua.

Distribution: Central America.

Specimens examined: W. C. Shannon 5026, 1893 (type — N).

190 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

14. Ipomcea murucoides Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4 : 248. 1819.

Convolvulus macranthus H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 95. 1818.

Ipomcea macrantha G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 267. 1838. Not /. macrantha Roem.

& Schult. 1819.
Convolvulus strictus WiUd.; Steud. Nom. ed. 2, 1: 412. 1841.

A large tree, the inflorescence and young parts densely tomentose or woolly;
leaf-blades oblong-lanceolate, 7-12 cm. long, rounded or obtuse at the base, long-
acuminate, tomentose beneath; calyx woolly without and pubescent within; the
unequal sepals 18-28 mm. long; corolla 7-8 cm. long, woolly-pubescent without;
capsules 25 mm , long; seeds with a long coma of white hairs on the dorsal angles and
apex.

Type locality: Near Guanajuato and Santa Rosa, Queretaro, Mexico.
Distribution: Hillsides, southern Mexico and Central America.
Specimens examined from Oaxaca, Morelos, Michoacan, Pueblo, Quere-
taro, Valley of Mexico, Guanajuato and Guatemala.

15. Ipomcea arborescens (Humb. & Bonpl.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4:

267. 1838.

Convolvulus arborescens Humb. & Bonpl.; Willd. Enum. 1: 204. 1809. — H. B. K.

Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 94. 1818.
C. arboreus Balb.; Steud. Nom. ed. 2. 1: 407. 1841.
Argyreia oblonga Benth. Bot. Sulph. 133. 1844.

Ipomoea murucoides var. glabrata Rose, Contr. Nat. Herb. 1: 107. 1891.
Convolvulus Quanhtzahuath Sesse & Moc, Fl. Nov. Hisp. in La Naturaleza II. 1: 23.

1887. Fl. Mex. 1. c. II. 2: append. 36, 37. 1893.

Leaf-blades finely velvety-pubescent above, paler, densely pubescent and prom-
inently reticulate-veined beneath, ovate, cordate; sepals oval obtuse, 6-10 mm.
long, tomentulose-pubescent within and without; corolla white, about 5 cm. long;
capsules 2 cm. high; seeds black with a long reflexed white coma of hairs on the
dorsal angles.

Type locality: America meridionali.

Distribution : Dry hilly regions of western and southern Mexico.

Illustrations: Gard. & For. 7: p. 364. 1894.

Specimens examined from Sonora, Sinaloa and Morelos.

16. Ipomoea cuemavacensis House, Bot. Gaz. 43 : 410. 1907.

Convolvulus arboreus Moc. & Sesse, Fl. Nov. Hisp. in La Naturaleza II. 1: 23. 1887.
— Fl. Mex, 1. c. 2: append. 38. 1893. Not C. arboreus Balb. 1841.

Closely related to the preceding, but the leaf-blades oblong, rounded at the base,
long-acuminate, 10-15 cm. long and 5-6.5 cm. wide.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 191

Type locality: Cuemavaca, Morelos, Mexico.

Distribution: Morelos.

Specimens examined: Rose & Painter 6863, 1903 (type — N).

17. Ipomcea intrapilosa Rose, in Gard. & For. 7: 367. 1894.

I. murucoides var. glabrata A. Gray, Proc. Am. Acad. 22: 440. 1887. Not /. gla-
brata Meissn. 1869.

Nearly glabrous throughout; leaf-blades triangular-ovate, short-acuminate,
truncate or rounded at the base, 5-15 cm. long; calyx tomentose without in bud,
becoming glabrate, pubescent within; sepals oval, subacute, 12-16 mm. long;
coroUa 4-5 cm. long, the limb 7-8 cm. broad; capsules ovoid, 2 cm. long; seeds with
a long dorsal coma of white hairs.

Type locality: Chapala, Jalisco, Mexico.
Distribution: Rocky hillsides, western and southern Mexico.
Specimens examined from Sonora, Acapulco, Jalisco, Oaxaca and
Morelos. Type collected by Pahner {No. 703, 1886, N).

18. Ipomcea calva House, Bot. Gaz. 43: 410. fig. 1. 1907.

Leaves clustered near the ends of the branches, blades small, 2-3 cm. long,
nearly glabrous; sepals 8-10 mm. long; corolla about 5 cm. long, white, glabrous.

Type locality: La Junta, Guerrero, Mexico.
Distribution: Known only from the type locality.
Specimens examined. E. W. Nelson 6992, 1903 (type — N).

t 19. IpomcBa wolcottiana Rose, in Gard. & For. 7:367. 1894.

Nearly or quite glabrous; leaf-blades ovate, or ovate-lanceolate, 7-13 cm. long,
rounded or truncate at the base, acuminate; sepals 10-12 mm. long; corolla white,
6-7 cm. long; capsules oblong, 18 mm. long.

Type locality: Manzanillo, Colima, Mexico.

Distribution : Rocky hillsides western and southern Mexico.

Illustrations: Gard. & For. 7: p. 365. 1894.

Specimens examined: Colima; Manzanillo, Palmer 134^, 1891,
(type — N, G, Y). Puebla; Rose & Hay 5830, 1901 (N). Morelos,
Cuemavaca, Rose & Painter 6965, 1903 (N). Chiapas; E. W. Nelson
8509, 1895 (N). Oaxaca; E. W. Nelson 2361, 1895 (N).

192 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Section II. PHARBITIS.

Annual or perennial twining or trailing vines with herbaceous sepals,
these often with elongated tips and more or less pubescent or hispid bases;
capsules globose, thin-walled, 2-, 3- or 5-celled.

Nil Medicus in Staatw. Vorles. Churpf. Phys-Oak. Ges. 1: 210. 1791.
Convolvuloides Moench, Meth. 451. 1794.
Ornithosperma Raf. Fl. Ludov. 149. 1817.
Cleiemera Raf. Fl. Tellur. 4: 77. 1838.

Pharbitis Choisy, in Mem. Soc. Phys. Genev. 6: 438. 1833.— In DC. Prodr. 9: 341.
1845.

4. Cephalanthse. Stout, annual or perennial twiners; the inflor-
escence congested or capitate and subtended by herbaceous, usually pubes-
cent or hairy bracts, or the pedicels very short and each subtended by a
bract. {I'pomcBa, Sect. Strophipomoea § Ceplialanthas Choisy, in DC. Prodr.
9:363. 1845.)

Sepals and bracts similar, hairy, not veined.

Stems minutely or softly pubescent or tomentose.

Leaf-blades silvery beneath; stems tomentose. 20. /. maireti.

Leaf-blades not silvery beneath, glabrous above and stems

minutely pubescent. 21. /. invicta.

Stems retrorsely strigose-pubescent.
Corolla 7-9 cm. long; western Mexico.
Corolla 3-4 cm. long; southern Mexico.
Sepals and bracts dissimilar; sepals veined.

Stems hirsute; peduncles longer than the pedicels.
Stems glabrous; peduncles very short and usuaUy shorter
than the pedicels.

20. Ipomcea maireti Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9 : 374. 1845.

A stout, perennial vine, with densely tomentose stems; leaf-blades ovate, cor-
date, 7-12 cm. long, acute, finely pubescent above, den.sely silvery pubescent beneath;
peduncles 1-3-flowered; bracts ovate, obtuse; sepals 18-22 mm. long, oblong-lance-
olate, acute; corolla campanulate-fumielform, 7-8 cm. long, the limb blue, the tube
white below, pubescent without.

Type locality: Mexico.

Distribution: Forests from Orizaba region to Oaxaca and Guatemala.

Specimens examined: Zuzuapan, Purpus 2S91, 1907 (Y). Valley
of Cordova, Borgeau 1738, 1866 (G). Oaxaca, E. W. Nehon 2JfiO & 24-71,
1895; Conzatti & Gonzalez 620, 1897 (G). Orizaba, A. Gray, 1885 (G).
Guatemala, Sutton Hayes, 1860 (G).

22.

/.

lamhii.

23.

/.

hirtiflora.

24.

/.

ruber.

25.

/.

fimbriosepala.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 193

I 21. Ipomoea invicta sp. nov.

A stout, woody twining vine; stems, petioles and peduncles minutely pubescent:
leaf-blades ovate, cordate, acute or abruptly acuminate, 8-14 cm. long, glabrous
above, pubescent beneath, principal veins about 6 pairs; petioles shorter than the
blades; peduncles 6-10 cm. long, 2-3-flowered; bracts oblong-spatulate, 1-2.5 cm.
long; pedicels 5-8 mm. long; sepals unequal, elliptical-oblong, acute or acvuninate,
2.5-3 cm. long, often tinged with red above; corolla broadly funnelform, about 6 cm.
long, blue, glabrous, white below on the plicae and tube, the tube 1.5-2 cm. thick.

Mexico: Jalisco; Vicinity of San Sebasian, 3850-5000 ft. alt. E. W.
Nelson 4087, 1897 (type, sheet No. 327167 — N).

. 22. Ipomoea lambii Fernald, Bot. Gaz. 20: 535. 1895.

Stems slender, covered with reflexed, tuberculate hairs; leaf-blades ovate,
acuminate, 7-15 cm. long, often 3-lobed or subhastate, strongly pubescent beneath;
peduncles 5-10 cm. long, 2-4-flowered; bracts elliptical-ovate, 2-2.5 cm. long;
sepals ovate-lanceolate, 1.5-2 cm. long; corolla 7-9 cm. long, rose-purple.

Type locality: Near Zopelote, Tepic, Mexico.

Distribution: Western Mexico.

Specimens examined: Lamb 556, 1895 (type — G, Y, N).

. 23. Ipomoea hirtiflora Mart. & Gal. Bull. Acad. Brux. XII. 2: 264.
1845.— House, Muhlenbergia 3 : 38. 1907.

Stout, twining, perennial; stems densely pilose with reflexed brownish hairs;
leaf-blades orbicular-ovate, entire or 3-lobed, acute, densely appressed pubescent
above, silky beneath, 6-12 cm. long, deeply cordate; peduncles 12-20 cm. long,
several-flowered; bracts ovate-lanceolate, 2-2.5 cm. long; sepals narrowly lanceolate,
acimiinate, pilose, 16-22 mm. long; corolla purple, slender, about 5 cm. long and 3
cm. broad, pilose without on the plicae and tube.

Type locality: Woods, Chinantla, Mexico.
Distribution: Southern Mexico and Guatemala.
Specimens examined: Near Jacaltenango, Guatemala, E. W. Nelson
3579, 1895, 3500-5400 ft. alt. (N).

24. Ipomoea raber (Vahl) Millsp. Field Col. Mus. Bot. 2: 86. 1900.

Convolvulus ruber Vahl, Eclog. Am. 2: 12. 1798.

Ipomoea setifera Poir. Encyc. 6: 16. 1804.— Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 359. 1845.—

Hallier f. in Bot. Jahrb. 18: 143. 1893.
/. brevifolia G. F. W. Mey. Fl. Esseq. 100. 1818.
C. setifera Spreng. Syst. 1: 606. 1825.
Calystegia setifera Meissn.; Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 316. 1869.
/. lesteri Baker, in Kew Bull. 83. 1892.
Ipomoea assumptionis Britt. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci. 7: 170. 1893.

194 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Type locality: America meridionali.

Distribution : West Indies, tropical South America and Africa.

Illustrations: Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: pi. 101. f. 2.

Specimens examined: Jamaica, Millspaugh 946, 1899. Porto Rico,
Sintenis 963, 1885; Heller 376, 1899; 6364, 1903; Millspaugh 146, 1899;
BriUon & Cowell 1392, 190Q. Guadeloupe : Z>W55 ^474, 1892. Martinique;
Duss 430. All in herb. N. Y. Bot. Garden.

Urban describes the form with pale yellow flowers as Ipomosa ruber var.
albo-flavida (Sym. Ant. 3: 345. 1902).

Ipomcea ruber var. palustris Urban, 1. c. is described as having 1-flowered
peduncles; bracts 6 mm. long, ovate; sepals prominently wing-keeled,
crenulate; corolla 2.5-3 cm. long and leaf -blades elongated. Both are
natives of Porto Rico, but the last variety is perhaps nearer the next.

25. Ipomcea fimbriosepala Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9: 359. 1845. —
Hallier f. Bull. Soc. Bot. Belg. 37: 97. 1898.

Aniseia hastata Meissn.; Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 319. 1869.
Ipomcea smithii Baker, Kew Bull. 73. 1894.

Type locality: Madagascar.

Distribution: Tropical Africa, Pacific Islands and America. Reported
from Guatemala, Brazil and Paraguay by Hallier; but no specimens from
North America have been seen by the writer.

5. Heterophyllse. Trailing or twining from thickened, tuberous,
woody roots; more or less pubescent; leaf -blades deeply 3- to 5-lobed or
subentire; flowers usually solitary on short peduncles; bracts small; sepals
very unequal, the outer ones usually with broad, ovate bases, the inner
narrower, the outer ones frequently truncate or subcordate, sometimes
enlarged in fruit; corolla purple, funnelform: ovary 3-celled. (Phar-
bitis Choisy, in part.)

Sepals merely acute, not attenuate.

Leaf-blades deeply 3- to 5-lobed; sepals ovate, 20 mm.

X 12 mm.; corolla 8-9 cm. long. 26. I. laeta.

Leaf-blades hastate and subentire; sepals 10 mm. long;

corolla less than 5 cm. long. 27. /. oreophila.

Sepals with attenuate tips.

Outer sepals linear-lanceolate without conspicuously

broadened bases; corolla 6-8 cm. long. 28. /. lindheimeri.

Outer sepals with conspicuously broadened bases.

Appressed sericeous-pubescent; corolla 6-9 cm. long. 29. I. heterophylla.
Loosely pubescent with hispid, whitish pili, only the
leaves loosely sericeous-pubescent; corolla 3-4 cm.
long. 30. /. pvbescens.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 195

26. Ipomcea laeta A. Gray, Proc. Amer. Acad. 22: 439. 1887.

Stems densely and softly pubescent; leaf-blades suborbicular, 3-5 cm. long,
deeply 3-lobed, deeply cordate, lobes contracted below and the blade sometimes
sub-5-lobed; peduncles about as long as the petioles; sepals oblong-ovate, acute,
hirsute, rounded at the broad base, 2 cm. long; corolla 9-10 cm. long, pubescent
without, pink-purple.

Type locality: Rio Blanco, Jalisco, Mexico.
Distribution: Trailing among grasses and low plants. Jalisco.
Specimens examined: Palmer 341, 1886 (type — G, N, C). Hills near
Guadalajara. Pringle U56, 1893 (G, N, C).

' 27. Ipomoea oreopMIa sp. nov.

Low and feebly twining, about 1 m. long from a woody root; stems and foliage
glabrous or minutely pubescent; leaf-blades ovate-hastate or triangular-ovate,
entire except for the spreading basal auricles which are 1-2-lobed or toothed; blades
3-5 cm. long, 2-4 cm. wide; peduncles slightly longer than the petioles; pedicels
less than 1 cm. long; outer sepals similar to the leaf-blades in shape, pubescent,
subherbaceous, triangular-ovate, hastate or subcordate, acute, 10-12 mm. long;
coroUa funnelform, 6 cm. long, the limb blue, the tube white below.

Mexico: Hidalgo; Rocky hills, Lena Station, 8300 ft. alt. Pringle
10034, 24 Aug., 1905 (type — G, Y). Chiapas; Near San Cristobal, E. W.
Nelson 3149, 1895 (233090 — N, G). Valley of Mexico; Mt. Zocoalco,
Guadeloupe, Borgeau 728 & 797, 1866 (G).

28. Ipomoea lindheimeri A. Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. 21 : 210. 1878.

Ipomoea heterophylla Torr. Bot. Mex. Bound. 149. 1859. Not /. heterophylla Ortega.

1800.
Pharhitis lindheimeri Small, Fl. Southeastern U. S. 964. 1903.

Foliage finely but densely appressed pubescent; leaf-blades deeply 3- to 5-lobed,
the middle lobe with a contracted basal portion longer than the expanded part,
lateral lobes similar; sepals linear-lanceolate, 2-2.5 cm. long; corolla 6-9 cm. long.

Type locality: Valley of the Rio Grande, below Donana.

Distribution: Hills and prairies, Texas to New Mexico, and northern
Mexico.

Specimens examined: Western Texas; Wright 508, 990; SchoU, 1851;
Jermy 185; Harvard, 1881; F. Tweedy 170; Reverchon 654; Comache
^^vmg, Lindheimer 1031, 1851; Heller 1776; Bray 18; Earle & Tracy 150;
Stanfield, 1896. New Me:!6co: Wright 1613. CoahuWa; Palmer 906, 1880.
Chihuahua; Pringle 1339, 1887; Townsend & Barber 220, 1899.

196 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Ipomcea lindheimeri subintegra var. nov.

Leaf-blades entire or angled, shallowly cordate, acuminate, 1-4 cm. long; sepals
ovate-lanceolate, 16-18 mm. long, 4-8 mm. broad; corolla 6-7 cm. long.

Arizona: Near Ft. Huachuca, Lemmon 2835, 1882 (type — G).

29. Ipomcea heterophyUa Orteg. Hort. Matr. Dec. 1 : 9. 1800.— Willd.
Enum. Hort. Berol. 1: 207. 1809.^

Ipomoea ortegoe Poir. Encyc. Suppl. 4: 633. 1816.
Ipomcea willdenowii Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4: 211. 1819.
Convolvulus heterophyllus Sprang. Syst. 1: 592. 1825.
Batatas heterophylla G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 261. 1838.
Batatas willdenowii G. Don, 1. c.

Convolvulus willdenowii Steud. Nom. ed. 2. 1: 412. 1841.
PharhUis heterophylla Choisy/m'DC.'ProAr. 2: 344. 1845.

Foliage appressed sericeous-pubescent; leaf-blades deeply 3- to 5-lobed; sepals
with ovate or suborbicular densely hirsute bases and long attenuate tips, 20-24 mm.
long, 10-15 mm. wide, enlarged in fruit; corolla 5-6 cm. long, the tube fully 10 mm.
thick at the top of the calyx.

Type LOCALITY : Mexico.

Distribution: Dry places, northern Mexico to western Texas.
Illustrations: Jacq. Fragm. 37. p/. 42. f. 4.

Specimens examined: San Luis Potosi, Schaffner 426 & 619 (Y). Chi-
huahua; E. W. Nelson 6159 & 6284, 1899 (N).

IpomcBa heterophylla semula var. nov.

Sepals ovate-lanceolate, 20-25 mm. long, 6-8 mm. broad; corolla large, the tube
4 mm. thick at the base, 6-7 mm. thick above the calj'x, subsalverform, the limb
6-7 cm. broad.

Chihuahua: Hills near Guerrero, Pmngle 1339, 1887 (type — G, Y, N).

Ipomcea heterophylla subcomosa var. nov.

Stems and foliage very densely appressed sericeous-pubescent; peduncles 1-2
cm. long; outer sepals 15-18 mm. long at flowering time, 8-10 mm. broad at the
truncate base, becoming twice as long and a half broader in fruit, the tips attenuate,
tinged with red; corolla 6-7 cm. long, the tube only 2-3 mm. thick above the calyx,
the limb 5 cm. broad.

DuRANGO, Palmer 590, 1896 (t^-pe — N, G, Y).

1 Ipomcea heterophylla R. Br. 1810. = Ipomoea polymorpha Roem. & Schult. 1819.

HOUSE, THE GENUS 1P0M(EA 197

i 30. Ipomoea pubescens Lam. Tabl. Encyc. 1: 265. 1891. — Encyc.
6:15. 1804.— Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 224. 1869.

Convolvuloides pilosa Moench, Meth. 452. 1794.

Ipomoea Papiriu & suhtriloha Ruiz. & Pav. Fl. Peruv. 2: 11. 1799.

Ipomoea varia Roth, Catal. 2: 17. 1800.

Convolvulus pubescens Willd. Enum. Hort. Berol. 1: 203. 1809.

Convolvulus Papiria Spreng. Syst. 1: 592. 1825.

Batatas Papirin & suhtriloha G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 261. 1838.

Pharbitis varia, G. Don, 1. c. 263.

Phurbitis pubescens Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9: 344. 1845.

Stems retrorsely hispid and pubescent with long whitish pili; leaf-blades similar
to the preceding but more hispid-pubescent; sepals narrowly ovate, acuminate,
15-18 mm. long, 7-8 mm. broad at the rounded or subcordate base, becoming 20 by
18 mm. in fruit; corolla 3-4.5 cm. long, the tube white, 7-8 mm. thick above the
calyx, the purple 5-angled limb 2.5-5 cm. broad.

Type locality: America (Lam.); Prov. Tarma, Peru (Ruiz. & Pav.).

Distribution: Stony hills, western Texas and Mexico to Peru and
Bolivia.

Illustrations: Ruiz. & Pav. 1. c. pi. 120. f. a.

Specimens examined: Western Texas; C. Wright 509 (G). Mexico:
Dr. J. Gregg 389, 1848-49 (G). Queretaro; Pringle 7194, 1896 (G).
Rose, Painter & Rose 9541, 1905 (N). Durango; E. W. Nelson 4638,
4747 & 4962, 1898 (N). Hidalgo; Purpus 1393, 1905 (N, Y). Rose,
Painter & Rose 8354, 1905 (N). Valley of Mexico; Rose, Painter & Rose
9541, 1905 (N, Y).

The above cited specimens are identical with Rusby's 1988, 1885, from
near La Paz, Bolivia, which agrees in all particulars with the descriptions of
Lamark and of Ruiz & Pavon.

6. Hederacese. Annuals or perennials, rarely with tuberous roots;
stems and foliage usually pubescent or hirsute; peduncles usually several
or many flowered; sepals equal or nearly so, broadest at or near the base,
usually densely hispid and acute to acuminate or attenuate-caudate ; corolla
blue or white ; ovary 3-celled or sometimes 5-celled.

Sepals acute, 8-15 mm. long.

Stems prostrate; ovary 5-celled; leaf-blades hastate-
cordate or lobed; root tuberous. 31. I. decasperma.
Stems twining; ovary 3-celled, leaf-blades ovate.
Stems and leaves hirsute to glabrate.

Leaf-blades usually entire; corolla 4-6 cm. long. 32. 7. purpurea.

Leaf-blades usually 3-lobed; corolla 2.5-3 cm. long. 33. 7. hirsutula.
Stems and leaves densely and softly tomentose. 34. 7. jamaicensis.

Sepals attenuate or caudate-attenuate.

198

ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Leaf-blades canescent, silvery or eilky-white beneath at
least when young.

Sepals pilose; leaf-blades sUvery-canescent beneath.
Sepals glabrous or nearly so; leaf-blades silky-pubes-
cent, glabrate above with age.
Leaf-blades hispid-pubescent to glabrate.

Tips of sepals caudate-spatulate, obtuse; corolla white.
Tips of sepals caudate-acuminate; corolla blue.
Foliage pubescent or hirsute.

Sepals glabrous; 25-30 mm. long; leaf-blades

hastately 5-7 lobed and cordate-hastate.
Sepals pubescent or hispid.

Leaf-blades entire, silky-pubescent.
Leaf-blades 3-5-lobed or angled; hispid-pubes-
cent.
Tips of sepals linear-attenuate, hirsute or
hispid at the base.

Bases of the sepals conspicuously broad-
ened; lobes of the leaf-blades con-
tracted below; corolla 2.5-3 cm. long.
Sepals densely hirsute; tips strongly

spreading.
Sepals sparingly barbate with whit-
ish hairs, tips not strongly spread-
ing.
Bases of the sepals not conspicuously
broadened, linear-lanceolate; lobes of
the leaf-blades rarely contracted be-
low; corolla 3-6 cm. long.
Tips of sepals merely long-acuminate, erect,
shghtly pubescent.

Bracts 4-8 mm. long; sepals puberulent

or sparingly pubescent.
Bracts 12-20 mm. long; sepals appressed
pubescent with silvery hairs.
Foliage and stems nearly glabrous or finely ap-
pressed-pubescent; sepals glabrous or nearly so,
veined and merely acuminate, 16-20 mm. long.

35. /. mutabilis.

36. /. villosa.

37. /. ampullacea.

38. /. thurberi.

39. /. barbigera.

40. 7. hederacea.

41. I. desertorum.

42. I. Nil.

43.

44.

7. vahliana.
I. Learii.

45. 7. cathartica.

31. Ipomoea decasperma Hallier f. Bull. Herb. Boiss. 5: pi. 14-
1897.

386.

Trailing from a large woody root; finely pubescent; leaf-blade^ orbicular-reni-
form, cordate-hastate, 2-4 cm. broad or sometimes 3- to 5-lobed; peduncles 1- to
3-flowered; sepals ovate, acuminate, 10-12 mm. long, hirsute; corolla purple, 5-6
cm. long; capsules globose, 10 mm. in diameter, 5-celled, 5- to 10-seeded, 5-valved.

Type locality: Valley of Mexico,

Distribution: Rocky hillsides, central Mexico.

Specimens examined: Near Durnago, Palmer 591 &692, 1896 (N,Y,G).

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 199

32. Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Lam. lUus. 1: 466. 1791.— Roth, Catal.

27. 1797.— Britton, Manual 752. 1901.

Convolvulus calycibus tuberculatus pilosis, Vind. Cliff. 18. — Hort. Ups. 38. —
Gronov. Virg. 141.— Roy. Lugdb. 428.

C. purpureus, folio subrotundo, Bauh. Pin. 295. — Ehret. Pict. 7. /. 2.

C. folio cordato glabro, Dill. Elth. 100.

C. caeruleus minor, folio subrotundo, Dili. Elth. 97.

Convolvulus purpureus L. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 219. 1762.

Convolvulus mutabilis Salisb. Prodr. 123. 1796.

Ipomoea discolor Jacq. Hort. Schoenb. 3: 6. 1798.

Ipomoea glandulifera Ruiz. & Pav. Fl. Peruv. 2: 12. 1799.

Ipomoea hispida Zuccagni, in Roem. Coll. 127. 1806.

Ipomoea intermedia Schnlt. Obs. Bot. 37. 1809.

Convolvulus eriocaulos Willd.; Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4: 301. 1819.

Convolvulus intermedius Roem. & Schult. 1. c. 264.

Ipomoea Zuccagnii Roem. & Schult. 1. c. 230.

P/iorhifis /lispirfaChoisy, in Mem. Soc. Phys.Gen^v. 6: 440. 1833.— In DC. Prodr.

9: 341. 1845.
Convolvulus Schultesii Roem. & Schult.; Steud. Nom. ed. 2, 1: 411. 1841.
Pharbitis purpurea Voigt. Hort. Suburb. Calc. 354. 1845. — Small, 1. c. 964.

Type locality: America.

Distribution : Thickets and waste places throughout tropical America.
Cultivated and a frequent escape northward to Ontario and Nova Scotia.

Illustrations: Dill. Elth. pi. 84. /. 97. Jacq. Hort. Schoenb. pi. 261.
Ruiz. & Pav. Fl. Peruv. pi. 121. f. a. Bot. Mag. pis. 113, 1005 & 1682.
Weinmann, Phytanth. 2: pis. 4H & 416. Britt. & Brown, Illus. Fl. 3:
/. 2949. Bailey, Cyclop. Am. Hort. /. 1167. Knorr. Thes. Hort. pis.
187 & 189.

33. Ipomoea hirsutula Jacq. f. Eclog. 1 : 63. 1811-16.

Convolvulus flore purpureo, calyce punctato, Dill. Elth. 99.

Convolvulus hederaceus var. y. L. Sp. PI. 154. 1753. Ed. 2, 219. 1762. in
part, as to the DiUenian citation above.

"ilpomoea punctata Pers. Syn. 1: 184. 1805. (excl. habitat).

Pharbitis diversifolia Lindl. Bot. Reg. 33: pi. 1988. 1837.

Pharbitis punctata G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 263. 1838.

P. Nil var. diversifolia Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9 : 343. 1845.

Ipomoea affinis Mart. & Gal. in Bull. Acad. Brux. XII. 2: 263. 1845.

Pharbitis cathartica Hook. Bot. Mag. pi. 4289. 1847. Not P. cathartica Choisy,

1845.
Ipomoea mexicana A. Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. 2' : 210. 1878.
Convolvulus hederaceus Sesse & Moo. Fl. Nov. Hisp. in La Naturaleza II. 1: 22, 1887. —

Fl. Mex. 1. c. II. in. 2: append. 21. 1893.
Ipomoea hirta Th. Dur. in Bull. Acad. Bot. Belg. II. 27: 175. 1888.

200 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Type locality: Mexico.

Distribution: Western Texas to Arizona, Central America and prob-
ably in South America.

Illustrations: Dill. Elth. pi. 83. f. 96. Jacq. f. Eclog. 1: pi. U-
Hook. Bot. Mag. pi. 4289. Bot. Reg. pi. 1988.

Specimens examined from Texas, New Mexico, Arizona; Sonora,
Jalisco, Chihuahua, Durango, Valley of Mexico, Aguas Calientes, Quere-
taro, Oaxaca, Mechoacan and Guatemala.

34. Ipomoea jamaicensis (Spreng.) G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 278. 1838.

— Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 225. 1869.

Convolvulus folio lanato, etc. Sloan. Jam. 55. — Hist. 1: 154.

Convolvulus tomentosus L. Sp. PI. 156. 1753.

fC. roseus Mill. Diet. No. 18. 1768.

C. jamaicensis Spreng. Syst. 1: 595. 1825. Not C. jamaicensis Jacq. 1768.

Pharbitis tomentosa Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9: 342. 1845.

Pharbitis jamaicensis Gib. Enum. PI. Montev. 28. 1873.

Ipomcea tomentosa Urb. Sym. Ant. 3: 344. 1902. Not /. tomentosa Choisy, 1845.

Type locality: Jamaica.

Distribution: Jamaica to tropical South America.

Illustrations: Sloan. Hist. pi. 98. f. 2. Pluk. Aim. pi. 167. f. 4.
Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: pi. 77.

Specimens examined: Jamaica: Great Goat Isl., Harris 9212, 1906
(Y).

35. Ipomoea mutabilis Lindl. Bot. Reg. 1: 39. 1815.

Convolvulus mutabilis Spreng. Syst. 1: 593. 1825. Not C. mutabilis Salisb. 1797.
Pharbitis mutabilis Boj. Hort. Maurit. 227. 1837.

Pharbitis dealbata Mart. & Gal. in Bull. Acad. Brux. XII. 2: 272. 1845.
Ipomoea dealbata Hemsley, Biol. Cent.-Am. Bot. 2: 386. 1882.
Ipomoea Learii Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 224. 1869. Not /. Learii Paxton,
1839.

Stems densely and softly pubescent; leaf-blades orbicular-ovate, entire or 3-
lobed, 6-15 cm. long, appressed-pubescent above, silvery-canescent beneath; sepals
linear-lanceolate, 10-15 mm. long, appressed silky-pilose; corolla 7-8 cm. long,
blue with a white tube.

Type locality: Near Vera Cruz, Mexico.

Distribution: Wooded slopes and mountain forests, Tamaulipas to
Vera Cruz, Orizaba and Oaxaca to Brazil.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 201

Illustrations: Bot. Reg. pi. 39.

Specimens examined: Tamaulipas; Victoria, Palmer 201 , 1907 (N, Y);
Orizaba; KarwinsTcij 590, & 591, 1841-42 (Y). MiXller 581 & 905, 1855
(C). Botteri 469 & 586 (Y, G); Borgeau 2212 & 2814, 1866 (G); Seaton
36 & 449, 1891. Vera Cruz; Jalapa, Chas. L. Smith 1791, 1894 (G).
Oaxaca; Tentila, Rev. Lucius C. Smith 657, 1895 (G).

J 36. Ipomcea villosa Ruiz. & Pav. Fl. Peruv. 2 : 12. 1799^— Griseb.
Fl. Br. W. Ind. 473. 1864.— Lefroy in Jones & Goode, Nat.
Hist. Bermuda 90. 1884.

Ipomcea congesta R. Br. Prodr. 1: 485. 1810.

Convolvulus congestus Spreng. Syst. 1: 601. 1825.

Convolvulus Ruizii Spreng. 1. c. 594.

Pharbitis tnsularis Choisy in Mem. Soc. Phys. Genev. 6: 439. 1833. — In DC.

Prodr. 9: 341. 1845.
I-pomoea insularis Choisy; Steud. Nona. ed. 2, 1: 817. 1841.
Pharbitis rosea Choisy, in DC. Prodr. 9: 342. 1845.

Type locality: Peru.

Distribution: Thickets near the sea shore, circumtropical and chiefly
insular.

Illustrations: Ruiz. & Pav. 1. c. pi.

Specimens examined: Bermuda; Kemp, 1885; Harshberger, 1905,
Brown & Britton 156, 1905. Socorro Id. (Pacific), Barkelew 245 (in part),
1903. Clarion Id. A. W. Anthony 403, 1897. Reported from Trinidad
by Grisebach.

37. Ipomoea ampuUacea Femald, Proc. Am. Acad. 33 : 89. 1897.

Stems woody below from a tuberous root, retrorsely hispid; leaf-blades entire
or 3-lobed; sepals pubescent, 2.5-4 cm. long, ovate below, acuminate and becoming
spatulate-attenuate with age; corolla white, 6 cm. long, pubescent without.

Type locality: Near Acapulco, Mexico.

Distribution : Known only from the type locality.

Specimens examined : Acapulco, Palmer 483, 1894-95 (type — G, Y, N).

38. Ipomcea thurberi A. Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. 2': 212. 1878.— In

Proc. Am. Acad. 19: 90. 1883.

Stems hispid or glabrate from an elongated, tuberous root; leaf-blades cordate-
hastate, 2-4 cm. long, the spreading basal lobes acute and often bifid or the blades

i/ 1 Ipomcea comosa nom. nov.

Batatas villosa Choisy, in DC. Prod. 9: 337. 1845.

IporwcBa m«osaMeissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 244, 1869. Not I. villosa R. & P. 1799. Brazil.

202 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

3-5-lobed, pubescent above; sepals glabrous 2.5-3 cm. long, acuminate; corolla
white with a pink or purplish limb.

Type locality : Southeastern border of Arizona, near Santa Cruz.

Distribution : Southern Arizona and Sonora.

Specimens examined: Thurber 966, 1857 (type — G); C. Wright,
1851 (G). Tanner's Canon, near Ft. Huachuca, Lemmon 2833, 1882
(G, N). Wilcox 356 & 1^25, 1894 (N).

39. Ipomcea barbigera Sweet, Brit. Fl. Gard. 1 : fl. 86. 1823.

Pharbitis barbigera G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 262. 1838.

Ipomcea hederacea var. integrifolia Hallier f. in Jahrb. Hamb. Wiss. Anstalt. 16: 42.
1898.

Convolvulus caeruleus minor, folio subrotundo, Dill. Hort. Elth. 97. and therefore
C. hederaceus (3, L. Sp. PI. 154. 1753. and Ipomcea purpurea /3, Roem. & Schult.
Syst. 4: 232. 1819.

Leaf-blades orbicular-ovate, entire or deeply 3-lobed, thick-textured, ciliate,
densely appressed hirsute with silky hairs above; sepals densely hirsute, 15-25 mm.
long with spreading, ciliolate tips; corolla 3-3.5 cm. long, deep-blue with purple
rays and a white tube.

Type locality: Mississippi (Dill.).

Distribution: Sandy fields and thickets, Georgia and Florida to
Alabama and Mississippi and Louisiana.

Illustrations: Dill. Hort. Elth. pi 82. f. 94. Sweet, 1. c.

Specimens examined: Georgia; Cuthhert, 1900. Pollard & Maxon
438, 1900 (N). Florida; Eustis, Nash 2482, 1895 (Y). Jacksonville,
Curtiss 6529, 1899 (N, Y). Tallahassee, Berg (Y). Mississippi; Schue-
bert, 1896 (Y). Louisiana; Vicinity of Alexandria, C. R. Ball 597, 1899
(N, Y, G).

40. Ipomcea hederacea (L.) Jacq. Collect. 1: 124. 1786. — Britton,
1. c. 752.

Convolvulus calycibus tuberculatis pilosis, L. Virid. Cliff. 18. — Hort. Ups. 38. —
Gronov. Virg. 141.— Roy. Lugdb. 428.

Convolvulus Virginianus elegans, incanis foliis tripartito divisis, flore amcena
purpureo, Pluk. Phytogr. 3: pi. 451. f. 7. 1692.

Convolvulus caeruleus, hederaceo folio, magis anguloso, Dill. Hort. Elth. 1: 96.
1732.

Convolvulus hederaceus -q L. Sp. PI. 154. 1753. Spreng. Syst. 1: 593. 1825.
Convolvulus Nil L. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 219. 1762 (in part as to the above Dillenian cita-
tion),— Michx. Fl. Bor.-Am. 1: 189. 1803.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 203

Convolvulus hedercefolius Salisb. Prodr. 123. 1796.

Ipomeea scabra Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab. 44. 1775.

Ipomoea barbata Roth. Catal. 1: 37. 1797.

Iponioea nil Pers. Syn. 1: 184. 1805.— Pursh, Fl. Am. Sept. 1: 146. 1814. Not

I. nil Roth, 1797.
Ipomoea avicularis Raf. Fl. Ludov. 47. 1817.
Ipomoea scabrida Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4: 223. 1819,
Ipomoea phymatodes Spreng. Nov. Prov. 24. 1819.
Ipomoea ccerulea Koen. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. 2: 91. 1824.
Cleiem£ra hederacea Raf. Fl. Tellur. 4: 77. 1838.
Pharbitis hederacea Choisy in M^m. Soc. Phys. Genev. 6: 440. 1833. — In DC.

Prodr. 9: 344. 1845.— SmaU, 1. c. 964.
Pharbttis variifolia Decne. Nouv. Ann. Mus. Par. 3: 390. 1834.
Pharbitis forskalii, barbata, purshii & scabrida G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 263. 1838.
Pharbitis coerulescens Sweet, Hort. Brit. ed. 3, 482. 1839.

Type locality: Virginia, Carolina (Dill.).

Distribution : Dry or sandy soil, fields and thickets, Virginia to Kansas,
Texas, Florida and tropical America. Adventive northward to Connecticut,
central New York, Ontario and Illinois.

Illustrations: Dill. Hort. Elth. pi. 80. f. 92. Bot. Mag. p/. 188.
Plukn. Phytogr. 1. c. Bot. Reg. ph. 85 & 276. Britton & Brown, Illus.
Fl. 3: /. 2950. Jacq. Ic. Ear. 1: pi. 36. Knorr. Thes. Hort. pi. 190.

, 41. Ipomoea deserfcorum sp. nov.

Closely related to the preceding; pale-green; stems scabrous and sparsely
pilose with loosely reflexed hairs; leaf-blades 3-lobed, lobes rarely contracted below,
usually triangular-lanceolate and acuminate, appressed-hirsute above, stiffly hirsute
beneath and on the petioles; peduncles 1-few flowered; bracts filiform, 4-6 mm.
long; sepals linear-lanceolate, 18-26 mm. long, tips scarcely spreading, margin ciliate
and base not conspicuously broadened, sparingly barbate with stiff, whitish hairs
arising from conspicuously white prominent papillise; corolla 3 cm. long, blue with
a white tube; seeds finely rough-pubescent.

Arizona: Tuscon, Thornber 29, 1903 (type — Y). New Mexico:
Florida Mts., Mulford 1088, 1895 (Y). Sonora: Guaymas, Palmer 295,
1887 (N, Y, G). St. Magdalena, SchoU, 1851 (C). Canon de los Guerryos,
C. E. Lloyd (Lumholtz Exped.) 432, 1894 (G). Chihuahua: South-
western part. Palmer 105, 1885 (N, G).

; 42. Ipomoea nil (L. in part) Roth, Catal. Bot. 1 : 36. 1797.— Hallier
f. in Jahrb. Hamb. Wissensch. Anst. 15: 44. 1898; 16: 42.
1898.— Bull. Soc. Roy. Bot. Belg. 37 : 94. 1898.

Convolvulus cceruleus major, folio hederacea, Dill. Hort. Elth. 97.
C. annuus, folio cordatis rarius trilobis, calycibus tuberculato pilosis, L. Hort. Cliff.
67.

204 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

Convolvulus hederaceus L. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 219. 1762, in part as to f. 93 of Dillenius.

Convolvulus nil L. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 219. 1762 (in part).

C. dillenii Desr. in Lam. Encyc. 3: 544. 1789.

Convolvuloides triloba Moench, Meth. 451. 1794.

Ipomaea cuspidata Ruiz. & Pav. Fl. Pereuv. 2: II. 1799.

Ipomoea dillenii Roem. & Schult. 1. c. 227.

Convolvulus peruvianus Spreng. Syst. 1: 593. 1825.

PharbUis nil Choisy in M6m. Soc. Phys. Genev. 6: 440. 1833.— In DC. Prodr. 9:

342. 1845.
P.cuspidataG.'Don, Gen. Syst. ^■. 270. 1838. Choisy, 1. c.
P. speciosa Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 343. 1845.
P. nil var. limbata Hook. f. Bot. Mag. pi. 5720.
/. trichocalyx Steud. Norn. Ed. 2, 1: 819. 1841.
/. longicuspis Meissn. in Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 227. 1869.
I. hederacea Baker & Rendle, in T. Dyer, Fl. Trop. Afr. 4==: 159. 1905.

Usually larger than I. hederacea; lobes of the leaf -blades rarely contracted below,
middle lobe usually dilated at the base; sepals linear-lanceolate, not dilated at base,
20-30 mm. long, 3-4 mm. broad, densely hispid; corolla 4.5-6 cm. long.

Type locality: Africa.

Distribution: Circumtropical. In America; Florida, Bermudas,
West Indies, Mexico and Central America to Paraguay and Peru.

Illustrations: Dill. Elth. pi. 81 f. 93. Bot. Mag. pi. 5720. Bentley
& Trin. Med. pi. 185. Ruiz. & Pav. Fl. Peruv. 2: pi. 119 f. a.

Specimens examined: Florida; Marco, Hitchcock 227, 1900. Jack-
sonville, Curtiss 5281, 1894; 5800, 1896. Jamaica; Harris 9155, 1906 (Y).
St. Thomas; Eggers, 1887 (Y). St. Croix; Ricksecker 187, 1896 (Y).
Martinique; Duss 431 & 1231, 1884 (Y). Guadeloupe; Duss 2^75, 1893
(Y). Guatemala; J. Donnell Smith (legit Heyde & Lux.) 4732, 1889 (G).
Nicaragua; Chas. L. Smith, 1893 (G). Costa Rica; J. Donnell Smith
(legit Tonduz 9864) 7090, 1896 (G). Nicoya, Tonduz 13678, 1900 (Y).

43. Ipomcea vahliana nom. nov.

Convolvulus acuminatus Vahl, Symb. Bot. 3: 26. 1794.

Ipomcea acuminata Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4: 228. 1819. Meissn. 1. c. 226. —

Griseb. 1. c. 473. Not /. acuminata. Ruiz. & Pav. 1799.
Ipomoea punctata Macf. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 2: 116. 1831. Not I. punctata Pers.

1805.
Ipomoea nil Gardn. in Hook. Joum. Bot. 1: 180. 1842. Not /. nil Roth, 1797.
PharbUis acuminata Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 348. 1845.

Leaf -blades ovate, entire or 3-lobed, lobes rarely contracted below; sepals
elongated, linear-lanceolate, 15-30 mm. long, sparingly pilose, tips appressed to the
corolla-tube; corolla 5.5-7 cm. long.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 205

Type locality : St. Croix.

Distribution : Thickets near the coast, West Indies and the gulf region
of Mexico, Central America to Brazil.

Illustrations: Bot. Reg. p/. 55. Meissn.; Mart. Fl. Bras. 7: 'pl.78.
Specimens exajviined: Cuba; C. Wright 1647, 1859 (G).

44. Ipomcea learii Paxton, Bot. Mag. 6 : 267. 1839.

Pharbitis learii Hook. Bot. Mag. pi. 3928, 1841.— Lindl. Bot. Reg. pi. 56. 1841.—
Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 343. 1845.— Fletcher in Bailey's Cyclop. Am. Hort.
819. 1900.

Closely resembling /. vahliana, and perhaps identical; stems finely pubescent
and tomentulose; leaf-blades glabrous above, finely pubescent beneath with pale
hairs; peduncles capitately 3- to 9-flowered; bracts linear, 12-20 mm. long; sepals
linear-lanceolate, 18-22 mm. long, minutely pubescent with appressed silvery hairs;
corolla 5-6 cm. long, blue, turning rosy in age, the tube white below.

Type locality: Said to come from Ceylon by Paxton, but Lindley (I.e.)
says that to be a mistake. The species is common in cultivation, and only
the following herbarium specimens can be referred here.

Guatemala; C. C. Deam 316, 1905 (G). Costa Rica: Pittier 16277,
1902 (G).

45. Ipomoea cathartica Poir. Encyc. Suppl. 4: 633. 1816, — Griseb.

Fl. Br. W. Ind. 473. 1861.

Convolvulus africanus Nicolson, Hist. Nat. St. Dom. 260. 1776.

Convolvulus pudibundus Lindl. Bot. Reg. pi. 999. 1826.

Iponioea pudihunda G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 276. 1838.

Pharbitis cathartica Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 342. 1845.

Ipomoea fastigiata Chapm. Fl. Southern States 344. 1860. Not I. fastigiata Sweet.

Glabrous or nearly so; leaf-blades entire to deeply 3-lobed; sepals glabrous or
nearly so, lanceolate, attenuate, 15-20 mm. long, appressed to the corolla-tube, 5- to
7-nerved at the base; corolla sometimes white.

Type locality: St. Domingo.

Distribution : Thickets in sandy or calcarious soil, peninsular Florida,
Bermudas, Bahamas and West Indies, gulf region of Mexico, Central and
tropical South America.

7. Cissoides.
One species: Corolla small, white. 46. I. cissoides.

206 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

46. Ipomcea cissoides (Lam.) Griseb. Fl. Br. W. Ind. 473. 1861.^

Convolvulus cissoides Lam. Tabl. Encyc. 1: 462. 1791. — Vahl, Eclog. Am. 2: 15.

1798.
Convolvulus calycinu^ H. B. K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. 3: 109. 1819.
Convolvulus orinocensis Willd.; Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4: 303. 1819.
Batatas cissoides Choisy in M6m. Soc. Phys. GenSv. 6: 437. 1833. — in DC. Prodr.

9: 339. 1845.
Merremia cissoides Hallier f. Bot. Jahrb. 16: 552. 1893.

Rough-pubescent and hirsute; leaflets 5, sessile or stalked, lanceolate, or ovate-
lanceolate, acute at the base, obtuse or acute at the apex, repand-dentate, 2-5 cm.
long; outer sepals ovate at the base, 8-15 nam. long; corolla white, 3 cm. long or
less.

Type locality: Cayenne.

Distribution: Cuba and southern Mexico to Colombia and Brazil.

Specimens examined: Cuba; Wright 3084 (G); Curtiss 378, 1904
(G, Y); Wibon 1224 & 3639, 1904 (Y); Mexico: Acapulco, Palmer US,
1895 (Y, N). Guatemala; Heyde & Lux. 4355, 1892 (Y).

Ipomoea cissoides guadaloupensis (Steud.)-

Convolvulus pilosus Wikstr. in Vet. Acad. Handl. Stock. 1827: 60. 1828.

Convolvulus guadaloupensis Steud. Nom. Ed. 2, 409, 1841.

Batatas cissoides ver. integrifolia Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 339. 1845.

Leaflets usually larger, entire, acuminate, less pubescent but the stem strongly
pilose; corolla larger.

Specimens examined: Cuba; Combs 680, 1896 (Y-G, in part).

8. Tyrianthinae. Twinning, perennial or annual vines, usually with
pubescent foliage and sepals. Ovary 2-celled, 4-seeded; seeds glabrous.

Leaf-blades cordate-hastate, the basal lobes rounded,
laterally acute.

Sepals 12-18 mm. long or less.

Sepals 2 mm. wide X 10-12 mm. long, with lax

tips; corolla 2-3 cm. long. 47. /. iostemma.

Sepals 3-5 mm. wide X 14-18 mm. long; corolla

5-6 cm. long. 48. /. variabilis.

Sepals 20-30 mm. long; corolla 2-3 cm. long. 49. /. portoricensis.

Leaf-blades not hastate at the base.
CoroUa 2-3 cm. long; sepals hispid; lobes of the leaf-
blades lanceolate. 50. /. harhatisepala.
CoroUa 5-8 cm. long; sepals pubescent or tentacular.

Sepalsdensely tentacular, 18-20 mm. long. 51. I. silvicola.

» B. D. Jackson, Journ. Bot. 30: 547. 1892, on the dates of Grisebach's Flora.

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 207

Sepals not tentacular.

Corolla glabrous, tube 1-1.5 cm. thick.

Sepals acute or subobtuse; plant more or less

densely pubescent. 52. I, longipedunculata.

Sepals long-acuminate, plant sparingly pubes-
cent. 53. /. orizabensis.
Corolla pubescent without, the tube 1.5-2.5 cm.
thick.

Sepals about 12 mm. long; leaf-blades stri-

gose-pubescent beneath. 54. 7. tyrianihina.

Sepals 22-30 mm. long; leaf-blades silvery-
pubescent beneath. 55. I. venusta.

47. Ipomoea iostemma sp. nov.

Slender, annual, twining, herbaceous, 1-2 m. long or less; stems very slender,
sparingly hirsute; leaf-blades ovate and entire to hastate-ovate or 3-lobed, cordate,
acuminate, 2-5 cm. long, 1.5-4 cm. wide, pubescent with scattered, inconspicuous
hispidulous hairs, lateral lobes acute and short, middle lobe elongated; petioles
shorter than the blades; peduncles shorter than the petioles and stouter, usually
1-flowered; bracts linear, 8-10 mm. long; sepals linear, 10-12 mm. lon^ and 1-2 mm.
broad at the base, the lax tips caudate-acuminate, glabrous; corolla 2-3 cm. long,
the violet-purple limb shading into white below.

Costa Rica: Nicoya, Tonduz 13680, Jan. 1900 (type — Y). Mexico:
Ixtapa, Jalisco, E. W. Nelson 414I, 1897 (N).

i 48. Ipomoea variabilis (Schlecht. & Cham.) Choisy in DC. Prodr.
9: 383. 1845.

Convolvulus variabilis Schlecht. & Cham, in Linnaea 5: 116. 1830. — Hallier f.
Bull. Herb. Boiss. 7: 411. 1899.

A twining annual, glabrous except for the calyx; leaf-blades ovate-lanceolate,
acute or acuminate, 5-8 cm. long, entire or usually cordate-hastate, the basal lobes
laterally acute; peduncles shorter than the petioles, hirsute at the base, 1-2 cm.
long, 3- to 5-flowered; bracts linear-lanceolate; sepals broadly lanceolate or ovate-
lanceolate, 12-15 cm. long, hirsute with spreading hairs at the base, glabrous above;
corolla blue (or purple), 5-6 cm. long, the limb as broad with 5, rounded lobes;
tube white, plicae purple or rose; capsules 8-10 mm. thick; seeds smooth.

Type locality: Vera Cruz.
Distribution : Mexico.

Specimens examined: Vera Cruz, Mailer 119, 1853 (C, Y). (Hallier,
1. c. cites Seler 2532, 3410, from Guatemala.)

208 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

* 49. Ipomoea portoricensis (Spreng.) G. Don, Gen, Syst. 4: 278. 1838.

Convolvulus portoricensis Spreng. Syst. 1: 595. 1825.

^Convolvulus meyeri Spreng. 1. c. 597.

Ipomoea meyeri G. Don, Gen. Syst. 4: 275. 1838. — Hallier f. Jahrb. Hamb. Wiss.

Anstalt. 16: 43. 1898.
Ipomoea brachypoda Benth. Bot. Voy. Sulphur 135. 1844.
Ipomoea decurtata HaUier f. Bot. Jahrb. 16: 495. 1893.

Similar in habit and leaf-blades to the two preceding; peduncles 1-3 cm. long,
2- to 10-flowered; sepals linear-lanceolate, 2-3 cm. long, 4-6 mm. broad, hirsute,
attenuate; corolla 2.5-3 cm. long, blue; capsules 1 cm. thick.

Type locality: Porto Rico.

Distribution: West Indies, southern Mexico to Panama and Guiana.

Specimens examined: Cuba; Wright 451, 1856-7 (G). Jamaica;
Marsh (G); Harris 6931, 1897 (Y). Porto Rico; Sintenis 828, 1885 (Y);
Heller 6225, 1902 (Y). Panama; CowelHO &291, 1905 (Y). Santa Marta,
Colombia, Herbert H. Smith 1573 & 1574, 1899 (Y).

50. Ipomoea barbatisepala A. Gray, Syn. Fl. N. Am. 2*: 212. 1878.

Type locality: Declivity of mountain near El Paso, Texas.

Distribution: Dry or rocky hillsides, western Texas to Arizona and
Oaxaca.

Specimens examined: Texas; C. Wright 507, 1849 (type — G);
Pringle 68, 1884 (G). Arizona; Lemmon 4U, 1881 (G); Griffiths 2032,
1900 (N); Thornher 76, 1903 (Y). Oaxaca; Conzatti & Gonzalez 697^,
1897; 1094, 1900 (G — cf. Greenm. Proc. Am. Acad. 39: 84. 1903).

^ 51. Ipomoea silvicola House, Bot. Gaz. 43: 411. f. 4- 1907.

More or less densely pubescent; leaf-blades ovate, entire or 3-lobed, appressed
sericeous-pubescent above, more densely so beneath; peduncles 1- to 3-flowered;
sepals unequal, lanceolate, acuminate, 18-28 mm. long, appressed-pubescent and
densely tentacular below; corolla 6-7 cm. long, glabrous.

Type locality: Rio de Las Canas, Guatemala.

Distribution: Forests of southern Mexico to Panama.

Specimens examined: Mexico: Chiapas, E. W. Nelson 3263 & 3419,
1895 (N). Guatemala; John Donnell Smith (legit Heijde & Lux.) 4022,
1892 (type — N, C). Panama; Svtton Hayes, July 1860 (G).

HOUSE, THE GENUS IPOMCEA 209

52. Ipomoea longipedunculata (Mart. & Gal.) Hemsley, Biol. Cent,-
Am. Bot. 2: 389. 1882.

Pharbitis longipedunculata Mart. & Gal. in Bull. Acad. Brux. XII. 2: 271. 1845.

Stems reflexed hispid to nearly glabrate; leaf-blades orbicular-ovate, 6-10 cm.
long, acute or acuminate, entire or rarely 3-lobed, deeply cordate, densely pubescent
above and ciliate; peduncles usually elongated, 8-20 cm. long, hirsute, 1- to 5-flow-
ered; pedicels 1-4 cm. long; sepals subequal, oblong-lanceolate, the outer ones
usually obtuse, the inner acute, 12-15 mm. long, hirsute, the inner ones with scarious
margins; corolla rose-purple, 6-8 cm. long, glabrous.

Type locality: "Crescit in Mexico, in Sylvis El Sabino prope Ixmi-
quilpan."

Distribution: Thickets and forests, San Luis Potosi to Guatemala.

Specimens examined: San Luis Potosi, Palmer 45, 1902 (N, Y, G).
Vera Cruz: Orizaba, Miiller 242 & 1567, 1855 (C); Seaton 256, 1891 (C,
G); Pringle 7053, 1895 (G). IMorelos; Purpus 1755, 1905 (Y, G). Rose
& Hay 5665, 1901 (N, G). Mexico; Borgeau 498, 1856 (G), 1738, 1866
(Y). Pri7igle 6452, 1896 (G, N, C), Urbina, 1881 (M); Altamirano, 1888
(M). Oaxaca; E. W. Nelson 1184, 1894 (N); Conzatti & Gonzalez 143
& 473, 1895 (G); Pringle 5665, 1894 (G), 8432, 1900 (G, Y, N). Jalisco;
Palmer 335, 1886 (N, C, G), Pringle 4448, 1893 (G, N, C).

Guatemala; San Miguel Uspantam, Quiche, John Donnell Smith
(legit Heyde & Lux.) 3189, 1892 (G).

^53. Ipomoea orizabensis (Pelletan) Ledenois; Steud. Nom. ed. 2, 818.
1841.

Ipomoea hatatoides Benth. PI. Hartw. 46. 1840. Not /. batatoides Choisy, 1837.
Convolvulus orizabensis Pelletan, in Jour, de Chemie Medicale, de Pharmacie et de

Toxicologie 10: 1. 18.34.
Ipomoea mestitlanica Choisy in DC. Prodr. 9: 389. 1845.

Root tuberous; stems glabrous or finely pubescent; leaf-blades ovate, shallowly
cordate, 3-lobed or entire, 7-10 cm. long, acuminate, lateral lobes not spreading;
peduncles 1- to 5-flowered; sepals lanceolate, thin, smooth, subequal, acuminate,
10-15 mm. long; corolla 7-8 cm. long, the purplish-blue limb shading into white
below.

Type locality: Near Orizaba, Mexico.

Distribution: Dry or stony places, northern Mexico to Oaxaca.

Illustrations: Bot. Reg. p/. 36.

Specimens examined: Nuevo Leon; near Monterey, Pringle 8737,
1903 (G, N, Y). Oaxaca; Cerro de San Felipe, Conzatti & Gonzalez 447,
1897 (G). Valley of Oaxaca, E. W. Nelson 1159, 1894 (N, G).

210 ANNALS NEW YORK ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

54. Ipomoea tyrianthina Lindl. Bot. Reg. Misc. 87. 1832. — Choisy

in DC. Prodr. 9: 375. 1845.

^.Convolvulus serotinus DC. Cat. Hort. Monsp. 97. 1813.

?Ipom<jea serotina Roem. & Schult. Syst. 4: 2