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TWENTY-EIGHTH ANNUAL EEPORT

COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES,

MADE TO THE

GENERAL ASSEMBLY,

JANUARY SESSION, 1898.

PKOVIDENCE:

E. L. FEEEMAN & SONS, PRINTEES TO THE STATE.

1898.

REPORT.

To the Honorahle the General Assembly of the State of Bhode
Island and Providence Plantations, at its January Session,

1898 :

The Commissioners of Inland Fisheries herewith present their
annual report for the year 1897.

It has been estimated by the United States Fish Commission that
the fisheries industries of the State of Rhode Island represent an
invested capital of over $1,000,000 ; yielding an annual income of
more than 1700,000, and furnishing emploj^ment to fifteen hundred
people. An industry offering employment to so large a number
of our citizens, and bringing, at the same time, large sums of
money into the State, should be fostered with the utm,ost care ; its
condition should be critically examined ; ample records should be
kept ; prejudicial factors should be detected ; errors corrected;
and active measures should be taken to still further develop what
has been already so productive.

The statutes provide that the Commissioners of Inland Fisheries
besides introducing, protecting and cultivating fish in the inland
waters, shall have a general supervision of all matters relating to
trespass upon anj^ waters by fishermen not inhabitants of the
State ; of the abuses of seining privileges ; of the observance of
"close time;" and that the annual reports to the General Assem-
bly shall contain such facts and suggestions as the commission
may deem proper.

4 EEPOET OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

TROUT.

Pursuant with the above-mentioned provisions, the Commis-
sioners during the past year (January, 1897 — January, 1898) have
purchased twentj^ thousand (20,000) yearling trout, and acknowl-
edge the generous assistance received in the work of distribution
from many fishermen of the State. Most gratifying reports have
been received from fishermen during the past open season, and,
though there have been a few comi^laints of illegal fishing, the
better class of fishermen are strictly observing the law. The
height of water in the streams promises a bountiful catch the
coming year.

BLACK BASS.

Black bass fishing has not been satisfactory during the past
vseason, and the Commission feels that its recent efforts and plans
for the future in the direction of restocking the inland waters of
the State were, and are, fully warranted.

An additional consignment of one thousand large-mouthed black
bass has been received from the U. S. Commission, and the same
has been deposited in the i)reserve set apart for the purpose of
propagation of this species, near WesterlJ^

LAND LOCKED SALMON.

Out of tliree thousand eggs of this species received from the U.
S. Commission, in January, the Commissioners have been success-
ful in hatching upwards of two tliousand. The 3^oung fish were
reared until about four inches in length, and then deposited in
Mill Brook, in the town of Charlestown. This stream was selected
on account of its being the main feeder for Watchaug Lake, and
it thus affords a nursery for the 3'Oung salmon until they are old
enough to take care of themselves in the larger bodj^ of water.
These waters were stocked in May with the eggs of the fresh-
water smelt, obtained from New Hampshire, it being necessary to
introduce tins variety of fish into the lake, as it is the natural
food for the land locked salmon. It is the intention of the Com-

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

mission, pending the result of this experiment, to protect Mill
Brook against all fishing. If this experiment is successful, other
waters of the State may be similarly stocked.

The Commission again reports that certain sea fishes have been
very abundant in Narragansett Bay and its tributaries.

COD.

The cod has been even more plentiful than in 1896, and has
often been sold to the consumer for from two to five cents per
pound.

MACKEREL.

Small mackerel have been quite jjlentiful in the upper waters
of the bay, having been caught as far up the river as Crescent
Park, something heretofore unknown to the oldest fisherman.

TAUTOG.

The early fishing was very good, fish weighing from ten to fif-
teen pounds being frequently caught.

SCUP.

Large quantities of scup have been caught in the traps in the
lower part of the bay, though but few have been taken in the
upper waters.

SQUITEAGUE.

The waters of the bay from Field's Point to Newport have
abounded with these fish, sj)ecimens varying in weight from one
to twelve pounds, rod and line fishermen have been afforded rare
sport.

We are glad to note a growing interest in the fisheries, an inter-
est that is becoming general all over the world. The progress that
has been made in all other departments of industry has not been

6 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF IXLAXD FISHERIES.

absent in the fisheries, as the frequent conventions and other
means of exchanging information prove. While the sale of salt
water fish was formerly restricted to a narrow margin of the coast,
the present facilities for packing and transporting enable those
engaged in the business to distribute their goods, and markets are
to be found in all parts of the countrj^ This great extension of
the area of distribution calls for a corresponding increase of sup-
ply that at times has taxed the ingenuity and resources of the
fisherman to maintain. They have devised, and are using, im-
proved appliances, without which it would be impossible to meet
the very large and increasing demand, and there has naturally
been some alarm lest the increase of fish caught should exhaust
the ocean's supply. Efforts have been made to connect the large
catches made by these new appliances with an alleged diminution
of the fish, and complaints against the menliaden fishermen sein-
ing in the upper waters of the bay have been made to some of the
Commissioners hy residents along both shores. It is claimed that
after the seiners have begun their work food fish are not so plen-
tiful.

While in former reports we liave pointed out other probable
causes of fluctuation, we wish now to call attention to an addi-
tional natural cause that has received little or no attention. Long
continued observation and great efforts have been made to learn
the history and habits of the ocean fishes. It is known that some
spawn in the ocean ; others in the shallow salt water ; still others
in the upper waters of the streams. Now, if there has been a
diminution of any of these fish, it is of the fresh water spawners.
The kinds that show most notably a decrease are the bass, the shad,
and the herring. If we look still further we shall see that the origi-
nal spawning grounds of these species have been materially affected
by the introduction of impurities and by the jjresence of obstruc-
tions. The imx3urities arise chiefly from the sewage of cities and
manufacturer's waste, and will naturally be exceedingly difficult
to correct. The obstructions are both artificial and natural. The
artificial obstructions, such as dams, etc., may be corrected by the

KEPOllT OF (.'OMMISSIONEHS OF INLAND FISTIF:RIES. 7

adoption of fish ways. The natural obstructions are often of a more
serious nature. The sea frequently throws up a bar in estuaries and
the mouths of streams in such a Avay as to. prevent the fish from
ascending into fresh water and depositing their spawn. Point
Judith Pond off'ers an instance of this kind. The pond and its
tributaries comprise the largest enclosed body of water in the
State, being about four miles long and one mile and a half wide.
In former years large numbers of bass and herring were found in
the waters of this pond and in the streams opening into it. It
was more than a breeding place, for large numbers of bass were
found throughout the winter, though it is possible that they were
accidentally shut in by the closing of the "breach." It is fair to
infer that under favoral)le conditions fish would again make this
their breeding ground.

Shipmeut of Fish and Lobsters hy regular lines of Transportaiioii
from Newport^ for the year 1897.

Fish. Lobsters. Swordfish.

Bbls. Bbls.

January. 270 17

February 489

March 4G 1

April 204 02

May 7,670 225

June 6,154 452

July 1,610 638 44

August 1,664 380 1

September 3,112 170

October 2,557 15

November 1,135 19

December 147 (50

25,058 2,039 45

Total of fish and lobsters, 27,097 barrels.

REPORT OF COMMISSIOKERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Table of Shipments hy Old Colony Lines.

Fish, Lobsters. Total.

Bbls. Bbls.

1886 17,434

1887 16,057 834 17,491

1888 15,033 1,161 16,194

1889 19,306 2,047 21,353

1890 8,933 2,650 11,583

1891 18,032 2,204 20,236

1892 26,832 2,123 28,955

1893 24,452 1,399 25,851

1894 17,769 2,392 21,161

1895 24,622 2,119 26,741

1896 20,425 1,728 22,153

1897 20,900 1,959 22,859

The last year is for ten months, ending November 1st.

The following communication lias been received by the Chair-
man of the Commission:

N. B. Church, Commission Mercliaiit,

Agent for the U. S. Menliaden Oil aud Guano Association, No. 153 Maiden

Lane.

New York, January 3, 1898.
J. M. K. SouTHWiCK, Newport, R. I.

Dear Sir: — Replying to your favor of 1st. lust., I desire to say that I would
like as usual to send you a full account of our Atlantic Coast fisheries, but fear
that I have not kept the matter so fully in mind as usual. The mackerel fisher-
ies began late in March, and was pursued with abundant' catches until late in
May when the fish disappeared, and were not seen in great quantities for the
balance of the season. Shad and all other species of food fish have been very
plentiful in their seasons on the whole coast north of Hatteras. Blue-fish, weak-
fish, and scup especially so, in fact, so plentiful that it has not paid to catch
them.

Menhaden have been very abundant in sections, and the catch runs higher
than for several years. Although I have not the full statistics, I think the catch
for the entire coast will exceed 600,000,000 fish, or 2,000,000 barrels.

REPORT OF (JUMMlSaiOKERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 9

There was a very large body of fish on the coast from Cape Cod to Eastport,
Me., and large catches were made by those having factories there, A large
body of these fish came into our bays in July and remained about forty days.
Good catches were made by those running their factories, but most of the Rhode
Island boats were in Maine, where the fish were fatter and more valuable. The
Connecticut and New York boats had good fishing in Long Island Sound, Gard-
ner's Bay and along the coast, and made excellent catches. In Delaware Bay,
the fishing was as good as could be desired, and large catches were made by all
the boats, and the same was true of the Chesapeake Bay and North Carolina
coast. About 2,250,000 gallons of oil have been made, with 21,000 tons of dry
fish scrap, and 35,000 tons of oiled fish scrap.

Trusting this may help you in making your report, I remain

Very truly yours,

N. B. CHURCH.

SCIENTIFIC WORK.

The past season there was added to this Commission a new
member in the person of Professor H. C. Bumpus, and we have
begun, nnder his direction, an investigation of the star-fish, a re-
port of which is submitted herewith. We trust that this new de-
parture in our work will meet witli general ai:)proval, and be sus-
tained by the State. May we not look forward to no verj^ distant
day when we shall have connected with the Commission a labora-
tory x^rovided witli all tlie necessary apparatus for the study of
this and other cognate snbjects, that have so important a bearing
upon our fisheries?

The Lobster Hatchery, for reasons given in a former report not
being in use for its original purpose, was loaned for the investiga-
tion of the star-fish, for which it has proved well adapted.

The Chairman, to whom the lobster hatching experiment was in-
trusted, would respectfully recommend that the property acquired
by him for that purpose, together with such sums of money as re-
main unexpended, be turned over to the Inland Fisheries Com-
missioners, to be used by them for the purpose of the Commission.

10 EEPOKT OF COMMISSIONERS OF IXLAXD FISHERIES.

The receipts and disbursements of the Commission have been
as follows:

State of Rhode Island in account with Comrnissioners of Inland Fisheries:

1896. Dr.

Dec. 31. To balance due Commissioners |203 71

1897.

Oct. 1. To paid for 20,000 yearling trout 717 60

Dec. 9. " "12 transporting cans 27 00

Dec, 31. " " expenses, Commissioners 310 07

Dec. 31. " " printing and postage 2130

$1,279 68

1897. Cr.

Jan. 29. By cash of State Treasurer $203 71

Oct. 5. '' " " ^•">3 12

Dec. 31. By balance due Commissioners 322 85

$1,279 68

J. M. K. SOUTHWICK,
HENRY T. ROOT,
CHAS. W. WILLARD,
WM. P. MORTON,
ADELBERT D. ROBERTS,
HERMON C. BUMPUS,

Commiissioners of Inland Fisheries.

REPORT OF THE BIOLOGIST

COMMISSION OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Many problems of economic interest have been suggested to the
members of the Commission as worthj^ of careful scientific investi-
gation, but one in i^articular — the depredations of the star- fish — is
of such pressing importance that the Commission has recommended
its immediate consideration.

Interviews with our fishermen reveal lack of definite informa-
tion in regard to the habits of the animal, and reference to the
literature on the subject jdelds little of practical value.

The facts before us are as follows :

The natural equilibrium of life in Narragansett Bay has been
disturbed ; many of the fish which once inhabited our waters have
been destroj^ed ; and their place has been taken by new forms ;
the rivers and streams opening into the bay are now more or less
polluted, and are no longer fit breeding places ; of recent years
the oyster men have cleared and ijlanted large tracts of our shal-
low inlets, and have thus not only imported millions of oysters but
with these, and quite unintentionally, myriads of animals quite
new to this locality. In addition to animals quite new to the
locality, animals already here have been often emancipated by the
destruction of their natural enemies, and have consequently multi-
plied without restraint. The star-fish belongs to this latter class.
It has destroyed manj^ of the large beds of mussels, the attractive
feature of our bay for many of the most important food fishes, it

12 EEPORT OF COMMISSIOXERS OF IXLAXD FISHERIES.

has materiall}^ assisted in the destruction of the clam, it has re-
duced the quahaug catch, and would exterminate the oj^ster were
it not for the eternal vigilance of the oyster-men.

In view of the above fact it is remarkable that no one has at-
tempted to determine the methods of life of the star-fish, with the
hope of discovering some period of its existence when it can be
more easily captured and killed than by the present methods, or
of some natural enemy wliicli might destroy tlie pest withont the
toil of the fisherman, or of some plan of enclosure which might re-
strict if not prevent its inroads. A knowledge of the life history
of various insects has enabled the agriculturist to prevent their
ravages. The understanding of the life habits of bacteria has
revolutionized the methods of sui-gery and medicine. The first
step in the campaign against any eneni}^ should l)e a determina-
tion of the characters of the eneni}^ itself.

That this study might be undertaken without delay, my colleagues
on the Commission very kindl}^ relinquished a generous part of
the approj)riation made to them for their expenses, and the Chair-
man, Hon. J. M. K. Southwick, x^laced at my disj^osal the house-
boat and car which he had used in connection with his work on
the lobster. This floating laboratory was placed at the mouth of the
Kickemuit river, immediately over one of the most valuable oyster
beds in the bay. It was fully equipped with instruments, micro-
scopes, chemicals, glassware, etc., by the Anatomical Laboratory
of Brown University. Dr. A. D. Mead was placed in charge, and
certain questions were given him for solution. It will be noted
below that man}^ of the questions must, from their nature, reuiain
unanswered until observations have been extended throughout the
entire year, and it is probable that two or three years, or even a
longer time, will be necessary for the final clearing up of questions
of rate of growth, time of sexual maturity, etc. Those who have
undertaken similar lines of research know that really valuable
results can be secured only through j)atience and protracted in-
vestigation — one well established fact is worth more than a thou-
sand fancies.

REPORT OF ('OM>rTSSTOXi:RS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 13

The questions are arranged in four grou^Ds: the first dealing
with the identification and distribution of the star-fish ; the
second, with the mode of life ; the third, with the breeding habits,
and the fourth, with natural and artificial means of destruction.
The answers, so far as they have been determined, appear in the
second part of this report.

INDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION.

I. Does the animal, known to our fishermen as the star-fish or
five-finger, belong to one or several species? (It is evident that,
if there are two or more species, artificial or natural agents de-
structive to one ma}^ prove quite harmless to the others.)

II. What is the geographical and bathymetrical distribution?
(The reply to these questions will indicate the areas subject to or
most liable to invasion.)

MODE OF LIFE.

III. What is the method of locomotion? (It is possible that
some barrier might be arranged that would limit, if not prevent,
invasion.)

IV. Are the star-fish, which are reputed to appear in schools,
in any way different from those known to occur naturally in a
particular locality?

V. To or from wliat distances may star-fish migrate?

VI. What animals are devoured bj^ the star-fish for food ? (If
the young star-fish feed habitually upon certain animals, it is
possible that the destruction of the latter will cause the former to
perish.)

VII. W^hat is the method of feeding ?

VIII. How rapidly may a star-fish devour oysters?

THE BREEDING HABITS.

IX. At which season of the year do the star-fish spawn ? (If
at a particular season, a special effort should be made to kill the

14 REPORT OF COMMISSiOK^ERS OF INLAKD FISHERIES.

animals before spawning, and tlius destroj^ both stars and spawn.)

X. What are the habits of the "fry" or free swimming young?
(The young of many marine animals, while far more abundant
than the adults, are far more delicate and easier of extermination.)

XI. What is the duration of the larval period ? (If an effort is
to be made to destroj^ the larvae, when must it be made?)

XII. What are the habits of the young star-fish ? (It is possi-
ble that the young star-fish, like the young of many fish, tend to
gather in schools. If so, the young might be killed 'off in thou-
sands.)

XIII. What is the rate of growth up to sexual maturity ?

XIV. What is the size and age at sexual maturity?

NATURAL AND ARTIFICIAL MEANS OF DESTRUCTION.

XV. What are the natural enemies of the star-fish ?

XVI. Is the popular idea that the dismembered fragments of
a star-fish will regenerate new star-fish founded on fact?

XVII. What are the artificial methods of destruction now in
use in Rhode Island or elsewhere?

IDENTIFICATION AND DISTRIBUTION.

I. Does the animal, knoivn to our fishermen as the star- fish or five-
finger, helong to one or several species ? {It is evident that, %f
there are iwo or more species, artificial or natural agents de-
structive to one may prove quite harmless to the others).

In a description of the star-fishes of the world W. Percy Sladen
recognizes 810 species of these animals, nearly 100 of which are
found only in very deep water — below 500 fathoms — and at a
depth of even 2,900 fathoms. Several species are found in the
waters of Narragansett Bay : —

The common star-fish (Asterias Forbesii).
The puriDle star-fish (Asterias vulgaris).
The blood star-fish (Cribrella sanguinolenta).
The snake star-fish (Ophiopholis aculeata).

REPORT OF COMMISSIOXERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 15

The first species is extremely abundant and is altogether too
well known from its depredations on the mussel and oyster beds.
The closely related purple star-fish is certainly very rare, at least
from Rock}^ Point north. Among the thousands of stars examined
from the oj^ster beds at Rocky Point, Kickemuit river, and other
localities, I have never seen a single specimen. It is, however,
common at Newport. If it were as abundant as the common five-
finger it doubtless would be equally destructive to the oyster and
mussel. The purple star-fish can usually be readily distinguished
from the more common species. It has a purple or sometimes
reddish color, and a softer, less rigid skeleton, and the arms are
more tapering. Other characters, for example the shape of the
minute forceps (pedicellaria) which are found among the spines
on the whole upper surface of the body, are of more technical value
in the determination of species.

The examination of a large number of specimens of the common
star-fish, and of the related purple star, shows that there is a great
deal of variation among the individuals of the same species with
regard to color, shape of the arms, and size and number of spines.
These variations are so great that the French naturalist, Perrier,
made five distinct species of Asterias to include those star-fish
along our coast, which, according to the American naturalists,
L. Agassiz, Stimpson, and Verrill, belong to only two species. The
fact remains, however, that the star-fish of either species vary
greatly in form and color. The young stars whose arms are less
than one-half inch in length show the same variation as are seen
in the adults. It would be interesting from a biological point of
view to determine whether these variarions are due to sex, to sur-
rounding conditions, — food, density of the water, etc., — or whether
they are casual individual differences.

The small blood star-fish, Cribrella, could not easilj^ be mistaken
for either of the preceding species. It is bright red, with round,
smooth, tapering arms. These stars are found occasionally upon
the oyster beds, and several were taken during the dredging ex-
cursion from Brown University, in the spring of 1897.

16 REPOKT OF COMMISSIOXERS OF INLAND FISHERIES.

Several specimens of the small snake star-fish, Ophiopholis, were
taken at the same time, and it is probable that other species will
be discovered.

II. What is the geographical and bathymetrical distribution ?

{The reply to these questions will indicate the area suhject to
or most liable to invasion.)

In answering this and the following questions reference is made
only to the first two si^ecies of star-fish, unless otherwise stated.

Geograi:)hical distribution. The i:)urple star ranges from Lab-
rador (probably further north) to Cape Hatteras. It is very
abundant on the coast of Maine and becomes less common, or
even rare, on the southern coast of New England. It is common
at Wood's Holl, Mass., but not so abundant as the other species.

The common star is distributed from Maine to the Gulf of Mexico.
Unlike the purple star it is comparatively rare north of Cape Cod,
but is the most abundant species in the southern waters of New
England. The two species, therefore, overlap each other in tlieir
geographical distribution, though the purple star is the northern,
and the common star the southern species.

Bathymetrical distribution. The purple star is found from high
water mark to 208 fathoms, while the common star (Asterias
Forbesii) has a more limited distribution, viz. : from high water
to twenty fathoms. The star-fish of both species often remain
among the rocks or in the seaweed after the tide has ebbed.

MODE OF LIFE.

III. What is the meUiod of locomotion '/ [It is possible that some

barrier might be arranged that would limit, if 7iot prevent,
invasion.)

The furrow on the under side of each arm is fui-nished witli four
rows of closely set "suckers" (ambulacral feet). Each of these
hollow cylindrical feet can be extended or retracted at will, and is
provided with an actual sucker which will hold to almost any
surface.

RKl'OUT OF COMMISSION KK.S OF JNLAM) JvlSlI Hlil ES. 17

By means of these ambulacral feet tlie animal walks or crawls.
The progress is slow, it is true, but sure, for there is no slip-
ping, and in a few hours a surprisingly long distance can be
covered. The feet are so numerous, and the movement so even,
that the animal seems rather to glide than to crawl. Moreover
the sea-water buoys up the star-fish so that it does not have its
weight to support. The star-fish will move easil}^ up the smooth
surface of a vertical glass plate or along the underside of a horizon-
tal j)lane. I liave often seen small stars, measuring about three-
eighths of an inch from centre to tip of arm, crawl up the side of
the aquarium and then glide along the surface of the water.
During this performance the star is always on its back, and the
suckers extend to the surface of the water.

The buoyancy of the water and the great number of feet enable
the animal to move over the lightest silt as well as over hard sur-
faces. Even large star-fish are able to pass through very narrow
and irregular crevices, for the skeleton is composed of innumer-
able small plates, joined together, and provided with muscles
which allows the body to adapt itself to the shape of the crevice.
The star-fish, unlike many other marine animals, snails, worms,
etc., will never creep out of the sea-water, nor even protrude an
arm above the surface. It will never cross a barrier that extends
even a little above the surface of the water.

The star-fish is generally believed by fishermen to have a much
more active mode of locomotion than that of crawling. The tradi-
tion is tliat large numbers of stars cling together to form a com-
pact ball from a foot to three feet or more in diameter, which
is rolled along the bottom by the tide until, striking an oyster
bed, the ball goes to pieces and the stars begin work at once.
It is difficult to find an actual eye witness of this ]3henom-
enon, though Ernest IngersoU tells of an old oysterman, " Captain
Eaton, of New Haven, who said that he and his brother once raked
up the end of a cylindrical roll of star-fishes clinging tightly to-
gether, which they hauled into their boat until it would contain
no more, when they had to break the roll or ' string,' as he called

18 REPORT OF COMMI.SSIOXEKS OF IXLAXD FISHERIES.

it, which was a foot or more in diameter." Tlie "string" was
composed only of star-fishes.

I have never observed anj^thing to confirm in the slightest de-
gree the truth of these stories, though I have seen balls of star-
fish clinging to each other. Upon examination it was evident
that the stars were all endeavoring to devour some animal held in
their midst.

It is difficult to conceive of a barrier which would be practical
and efficient in keeping the stars off the oyster bed. The animals
can creep over any surface and through small crevices provided
they are under water. Theoretically a fine netting across the
inlet of an estuary or surrounding the beds, and extending from
the surface of high water to the bottom, would keep out the larger
stars ; or if the oysters were susiiended from floats and kept off
the bottom the stars could not readily reach them. Neither of
these contrivances would, of course, keep off the young stars which
for the first two or three weeks of their existence swim about
freelj^ in the water.

IV. Are the star-fish which are reputed to appear in schools in
any ivay different from those known to occur naturally in a
particidar locality ?

I have thus far not had an opportunity to examine the star-fish
reported to appear in schools.

y. To or from what distance may star-fish migrcde?
I have not yet made experiments to determine.

VI. Whcd animals are devoured hy the star-fish for Food ? {If the
young star-fish feed habitually upon certain animcds, it is
p>ossihle that the destruction of the Icdter will cause the former
to perish.)

The young star-fish are exceedingly voracious, perhaps more so
than the older ones. The}^ find an abundance of food among the
myriads of small animals of various kinds which live among rocks

KEPORT OF rOMMISSlOXERS OV IXLAXI) FTSTIElltES. 19

covered with sea-weed or in tlie eel-grass along the randdy shore.
In the eel-grass, just below low water mark, the small stars (half-
inch more or less from centre to tip) are especially numerous,
and here they will be found devouring small clams, quahaugs,
sea-snails, and worms of various kinds. The eel-grass is usually
abundant near oyster beds and is a veritable nursery for young
star-fish. In the aquarium they eagerly devour fragments of
crabs or other animals, and occasionally even other star-fish
smaller than themselves. The adult star-fish, besides eating
numerous small animals which come in its way, attacks and de-
vours larger ones. I have seen them eat the sea-snails Litorina,
Ilyanassa, Urosalpinx, barnacles, quahaugs, mussels, as well as
oysters. Tliere seems to be no question, however, but that they
prefer small oysters to any other diet. If hungry they will also
devour other star-fish which are smaller or which have been muti-
lated.

But we must give the animal his due, and the star-fish should be
given the credit of devouring in great numbers, " oj^ster-drills " of
various species, including young "conchs" (Sycotypus and Ful-
gar), which in southern waters, especially in the Chesapeake Bay
and in other countries, for example Japan, where the star-fish are
not so common, prove a serious menace to the oyster culture,

YII. What is the method of feeding ?

The mouth of the star-fish is in the centre of the disc on the
lower side of the bod3^ Comparatively small pieces of food are
taken into the stomach and the refuse ejected again through
the mouth. But, since the mouth is small (no more than one-
fourth inch in a good-sized star), and surrounded by a rigid
skeleton, larger animals, which form the greater part of the star-
fish bill-of-fare, are necessarily digested without being taken in
through the mouth. The stomach, therefore, is turned inside
out and, w^rapping itself about the animal to be devoured, digests
gests it where it lies. It is safe to say, I think, that the stomach

20 HEPORT UF r()MMISSlOXEK8 OF IXLAXJ) FISHERIES.

can be protruded for a distance equal to the length of the star-
fish's arm. Having digested the food the stomach is withdrawn
to its normal position within the bod}-.

Most of the animals upon which the star-fish prey are molluscs
protected bj^ hard shells; for example, the sea-snails, mussels, qua-
haugs, and oysters. How does the star get at the soft i^art of the
molluscs ? This question has given rise to a great deal of interest-
ing, not to say amusing, speculation, esx:)ecially with respect to the
oyster.

An old tradition in England and this country is to the effect
that the star-fish takes the oyster bj^ sur^^rise and i)uts an arm
into its gaining shell ; then a fight ensues. Sometimes the oyster
is victorious while the star-fish retreats minus an arm, but often
the 03'Ster succumbs, since it cannot live long with its shell open,
and the star then devours its prey at leisure. There are two facts
that are sufficient to disprove this theory. In the first i^lace, the
oyster is veiy sensitive/ and feels the slightest disturbance in tlie
vicinity of the margin of the o^jen shell. In the second i)lace, the
shell does not open wide enough to admit the arm of the star.
Moreover, simi)le observation of the star-fish during the iDrocess
of eating disproves the story.

It is suijposed by many that the star-fish secrets a poison into
the shell which causes the latter to open. But the valves of the
shell can be shut water tight and would exclude such a poison.
I have taken away from the star-fish oysters, muscles, and
drills which had already been opened, and placed them in an
aquarium where they soon recovered and behaved as though noth-
ing had happened. Schiemenz found the same to be true in the
case of the quahaug (Venus).

Some have supposed that the star bores a hole through the shell
of the victim, but the star has no boring apparatus, and the shells
known to be opened by the star have no holes in them.

It is a ver^^ common belief that an acid is secreted by the star
which dissolves the shell so that an entrance is effected. After a
successful opening, however, the litmus-paper shows no acid from

tiEPOKT OF ('()Mmissi()m:us of inland fish KIM i<:s. 21

the stomach of the star-fish, and the margin of the shells shows no
trace of having been acted iij)on by an acid. A considerable
qnanlity of acid would be required to sufficiently dissolve the
shell of a medium sized oj^ster, and this would undoubtedly dis-
solve, at the same time, the unprotected calcareous spines about
the mouth of the star-flsh itself.

The most prevalent opinion is, perhaps, that the star-fish chips
away the thin edges of the shell until an entrance is gained to the
soft parts. The broken edges of the oyster shells Avhich have been
opened by the star seem at first to sustain this opinion. The pro-
cess is thus described in a recent number of a Providence news-
paper. "The star-fish seizes its prey by clasping its tentacles
around the'soft, f ringy edge of the oyster, which it eats away until
the soft oyster can be sucked from the orifice, etc." Ingersoll, in
an article on Oyster Industry, already referred to, after speaking
of the alleged use of acid in opening the shell, saj^s :-— " Moreover,
it seems unnecessary, since the appearance of every shell attacked
at once suggests the breaking down, chipping off movement, which
the star-fish might easil}^ i)roduce by seizing and suddenly pulling
down with the suckers nearest the mouth, or by a contraction of
the elastic opening of the stomach. At any rate the thin edge of
the shell is broken away until an entrance is made which the
oyster has no way of barricading."

An oyster which has not been injured by rough treatment has
the edges of the shell extremely thin and so fragile that they can
be broken down with a camel's liair brush. The lower shell is
particularly fragile near the edge. It will be noticed, however,
that the valves frequently do not come together at all at the ex-
treme edge, and the real line of contact, the biting edge, is one-
fourth inch or more further back. The chipping of the margin of
the shell by the star-fish is merely accidental, and avails nothing
in getting at the soft parts of the oyster. I have carefully ex-
amined a large number of shells of oysters known to have been
devoured by star-fish, and, though they appear to be badly chipped,
the biting edge is never broken, and the shells have always been

22 REPORT OF COMMISSIOXERS OF IXLAXI) FISHERIES.

found to be water tight. If such a shell, recentlj^ opened by the
star, be filled with water, and the valves held between the thumb
and the finger, the water will not leak out even though the shell
be violent!}^ shaken.

In mussels which have been opened by the star-fish there is
no trace of any chipping at all. The reason is plain : the valves
of the shell come together firmly at the very edge ; there is no
delicate fringe at the margin. The same is, of course, true of the
quahaug. Nevertheless the quahaug and mussel are readilj^
opened b}^ the star-fish. It follows, therefore, that if the star-fish
gained entrance to the soft oyster by chipping off the edge of the
shell, a different process must be adopted in entering a mussel or
quahaug, to say nothing of the snails which it also devours.

The credit of solving the i)roblem— How do the star-fish open
oysters? — is due to Dr. Paulus Schiemenz, of Hanover, Germany,
who carried on his investigations at the famous Zoological Station
at Naples. The problem was suggested to him bj^ Collins' report
of the enormous injury done to the oyster beds by the star-fish in
Long Island Sound. The i)rocess is briefly as follows : — The star-
fish so covers his victim that the suckers on the under side of the
arms are distributed i^art to one valve, part to the other, and the
remainder frequently to some surrounding object. (In the case of
the snails the suckers are attached to the operculum and to the
shell). The suckers are very numerous and stick fast, and a
tendency to straighten the arms results in a constant pull upon
the shells in opposite directions, which, if strong enough, would
open the shells. It is true that a star-fish is not strong enough to
open an 03'ster or quahaug immediately in this manner, but he
can and does fatigue his prey. The constant, steadj^ pull in oppo-
site directions soon fatigues the muscle which holds the shell to-
gether, and the oyster or clam presently gapes open. The oyster
can overcome the strong pull for a short time but not a weaker
pull for a long time. The same principle is well illustrated in the
case of the i)eri winkle or conch. If a string be tied around the
"foot" so as to give a good hold on the animal, a strong man can-

REJ'OJIT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAN'I) i'lSIIEJtJ ES. 23

not pnll the mollusc out of its shell, but if it be suspended by this
string it cannot sustain for a long time even its own weight. On
the same principle a man who can hold at arm's length a weight of
twenty pounds cannot hold his empty hand in this position for
ten minutes. Schiemenz showed by experiment that the star
could exert a pull of over 1,200 grams, and that a pull of 900
grams is sufficient for opening a good size quahaug if allowed to
act for thirty minutes.

My own observations and experiments are entirely in accord
with Schiemenz's results.

Frequently more than one star-fish takes part in opening an
oyster, and once an oyster is opened other star-fish often happen
along and enter into the feast. It is the young oysters that are
in greatest danger from the stars, and the danger decreases as the
oysters grow larger. Oysters of marketable size, that is, three or
four years old, are comparatively unmolested. Of course, the
larger star-fish can open the larger oysters, but fortunately the
larger stars are more easily caught in the " mops " and thus more
easily kept off the beds. It has not been ascertained how large
an oyster can be opened by the star-fish.

YIII. How rapidly may a star-fish devour oysters ?

The answer to this question depends ui)on several conditions,
viz.: — the size of the stars and of the oysters, the temperature of
the water, and the hunger of the star-fish. I cannot at j)resent
give a very satisfactory answer. Collectively the star-fish devour
an enormous number of oysters in a few days. A Providence
oysterman informs me that a few j^ears ago, during a few days
when his engines were being repaired, so that he could not " mop "
the stars, the latter completely destroyed a whole bed (several
acres of seed oj^sters) leaving hardl}^ an oj^ster alive.

Collins (Notes on the Oyster Fishery of Connecticut) estimates
that in 1888 the damage done to the beds in the Connecticut
waters alone was $631,500, in siDite of the fact that -12,000 bushels
of stars were taken from the beds that same year.

24 KEPORT OF ('0MM18SI0XEKS OF IXLAXD FISHERIES.

IX. At which season of the year do the stai'-fish spaion ? (If at a

particular season, a special effort should he made to kill the
animals before spawning, and thus destroy both stars and
sptaiun.)

The spawning season of the star-fish is imdeterniined. That
they spawn in the summer any oyster-man will tell j^ou. I have
found stars containing ripe eggs and ripe spermatozoa from June
until December, and should not be sur^Drised if they spawned
throughout the year.

X. What are the habits of the ^'fry " or free sivirnming young ?

{The young of many marine animals, ivhile far more abund-
ant than the adults, are far more delicate and easier of exter-
mination.)

I have thus far given little attention to the habits of the free-
swimming "fry" or brachiolaria. It is welt-known, however,
that they begin life in the water, that is to say, the female star-
fish discharges the eggs unprotected into the water, and the milt
or si)ermatozoa, discharged in the same way by the male, comes
in contact with and fertilizes the eggs. In a few hours the eggs
have developed into free-swimming forms which propel themselves
by means of vibratile hairs definitely arranged on the surface.

Under favorable conditions one can cai:)tui'e millions of these
little creatures by dragging a fine net at the surface of the water.
Thej' appear and disappear mysteriously however, usually prefer-
ring to come to the surface at night. Menhaden and other marine
animals, not the least of them the oyster itself, doubtless destroy
millions of these minute larvae.

XI. Wliat is the duration of the larval period? [If an effort is to

be made to destroy the larvce, tvhen must it be made ?)

The duration of the larval j)eriod is about three weeks, but
varies according to the temperature of the water, an increase in
temperature accelerating development.

KEPOKT OF C0MM1SS10^•EK8 OF i:NLA^J> FISIIEKIES. 25

XII. What are the habits of the young star-fish'/ { It is possible

that the young star-fish, like the young of many fish, tend to
gather in schools. If so, the young might be killed off in
thousands.)

I have nieutioiied some of the habits of the youug stars under
the previous heading. There is little doubt that if the eel-grass
were cleared out they would be destroyed in great numbers.

XIII. What is the rate of growth up to sexual maturity 9

As far as I am aware this is not known. By arranging the star-
fish according to size Mr. Agassiz has estimated roughly that it
takes about fourteen years to reach full development, but that
they may become sexually matured in about six years. I have
been unfortunate in losing many of the specimens which I had
under observation.

XIV. What is the size a7id age at sexual maturity ?

I have made and tabulated some observations to determine the
size of the star when it first begins to breed, and believe that it
does not reach maturity until it measures two inches from the
mouth to tip of arm, and rarely until it is even larger. This con-
clusion must necessarily be provisional.

XV. What are the natural enemies of the star-fish f

Fresh water and extreme cold are most effective in killing off
star-fish. Heavy rain storms and freshets so freshen the water in
estuaries and shallow bays that great numbers of stars are killed,
though the oysters are not harmed. The freshet of March, 1888,
practically annihilated the stars on the extensive oyster beds in
Kickemuit river, as I am told b}^ the proprietor, and they were
not again a serious menace till three or four years later. I have
started some experiments to ascertain the least density of water
compatible with the life of the star.

The free-swimming "fry" of the star-fish fall prey to many

26 KEPOKT OF COMMISSIOXEKS UF INLAND FISHERIES.

fishes and other animals which feed indiscriminately upon minute
pelagic forms. It is not well understood what the enemies of the
adult star may be. An oysterman told me that he had seen gulls
carrying them off, and with field glasses had watched them.
It is possible that crows also prey upon the stars that are left
on the beach after the tide has ebbed. The crows in some regions
of our coast make daily journeys from their rookeries to the shore,
and as many as two hundred and thirty-six were one day counted
on the west shore of Portsmouth, R. I.

I have noticed on certain lots of star-fish, dredged from different
localities, what appears to be a disease, attacking the skin first
and not infrequently eating its way through the body. This
disease attacks both the common star and the purple star. Some
of the star-fish in my cars at Kickemuit river were so seriously
affected that some of the arms were entirely eaten through and
the ends dropped off. Later some of them recovered.

The most destructive enemies of many animals are the para-
sites, and if this disease, to which I have just referred, proves to
be due to a bacterium or some other infectious parasite, it may be
of service in destroying the star-fish, and thus directly protecting
the mussels, clams, and oysters. There seems to be no doubt but
that, with the development of the oyster beds, the star-fish has be-
come more numerous along oar New England coast.

XVI. Is the popular idea that the dismembered fragments of a
star-fish tcill regenerate new star-fish, founded on fact ?

It is certainly a most popular opinion that if the star-fish be
cut in several pieces each fragment may regenerate the remain-
ing parts so that a new animal results. Ingersoll (Oyster In-
dustry of the United States) says :— " When oysters were first
cultivated along the American coast, and this enemy first became
known, the oystermen used to save all that they caught in their
tongs and dredges, and pile them up in a corner of their boats
until evening. Then they would collect them in small packages
and draw a cord around each lot tightly enough to cut through it.

liKPORT OF nOMMlSSIOXERS OF INLAKD FISHERIES. 27

This done, the remnants were cast overboard and considered done
for. But this was entirely a mistake, as was presentlj^ found out.
Five or six of these fragments not only retained life but renewed
the lost parts and became active again. Thus, instead of dimin-
ishing the pest these men were directly increasing it, since they
were making two or three star-fishes out of each captive. It was
a case of multiplication by division, which may be an invariable
paradox in mathematics but is by no means one in zoology."

I have made some exi3eriments in order to find out what the ac-
tual powers of regeneration are. If the arm of a star be mangled
it will generallj^ drop off, or can easily be pulled off, always severing
its conne(;tion with the central disc at a certain fixed line. If
these stars be kept in a suitable car they will renew the lost arms.
If an arm be cut off at some distance from the disc it will regener-
ate a new tip. Double or rather forked arms were produced by
cutting off the tip of an arm and splitting the stump. Each half
stump, so to sj^eak, regenerated a complete tip. Such freaks are
sometimes found among the stars which come up in the dredge or
mop.

Four of the five arms were taken off at the same time, and all
four regenerated. The arms which were removed, however, never
showed the slightest sign of regenerating the rest of the star-fish.
Another ex]3eriment, I cut the star-fishes into two parts, one having
three arms and the greater ]3art of the central disc, the other having
two arms and the smaller part of the disc. The smaller part in each
case died, while the larger lived. All but one of these specimens
were afterwards destroyed by other star-fishes in the aquarium.
One still survives and has lived for months in the same aquarium
with the stars which have, meantime, regenerated their lost arms.
This one, howev^er, has not showed the slightest sign of regenerat-
ing its lost parts, nor had the others before the}' were killed.

More experiments must, of course, be made before a definite
conclusion can be reached, but I believe that the popular opinion
that two star-fish maj' be gotten from one, by cutting it up and
allowing the fragments to regenerate, is erroneous ; that only one

28 REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF IXLAXD FISHERIES.

complete star can result from all the fragments, and then onlj^
when one fragment contains at least the whole central disc. Com-
plete regeneration from a single arm has been described for cer-
tain species by Prof. Haeckel.

XVII. What are the artificial methods of destruction now in use
in Rhode Island or elsewhere ?
Star-fishes are caught in considerable numbers with the spear
and tongs, but the more efficient method is the use of the " tangle "
or "mop." The tangle consists of a number of mops of cotton
waste or similar material attached to an iron bar. By dragging
these mops over the oyster beds the stars become entangled and
are drawn up with the mops. The mops are usually detached
from the iron bar and thrown, together with the stars, into a
tub of hot water. Meanwhile other mops are attached to the
bar and thrown overboard. After the stars are killed they can
be more easily picked off the mops than when they are alive.
Some oystermen prefer to dredge up oysters, stars and all, and,
having culled out the stars, to replant the oysters. Dead stars
make an excellent fertilizer.

APPLICATION FOR APPROPRIATION.

The Commission respectfully asks for an appropriation of $3,000
to defray the expenses of the ensuing year, and bases its applica-
tion upon the following:

1. The investigation upon the depredations of the star-fish, an
account of which accompanies this application, have already
yielded sufficient scientific and practical results to warrant their
continuation for at least an entire year, that the period of breed-
ing, rate of growth, and seasonal habits may be definitely deter-
mined.

2. The reasons for the present depleted conditions of the clam-
beds should be known. The breeding habits and breeding period

REPORT OF COMMISSIONERS OF INLAND FISHERIES. 29

of the clam should be ascertained, and the feasibility of artificially
restocking portions of the shore should be tested. There is here
an imperative demand made upon the Commission to rehabilitate
a waning industry.

3. The statutes provide that the Commission " shall from time
to time examine all the weirs, traps, and other contrivances, with
the view of carrying out such regulations as are most beneficial to
the people of the State." At the present time the State has no in-
formation as to the number, location or ownership of the fish traps,
and is keeping no adequate record of the amount of fish caught,
or of the amount consumed within the State, or shipped into other
States. With the assistance of the fishermen of Rhode Island it
has planned to keep a record of the location and ownership of the
fish-traps, and to jealously guard our interests against the inva-
sion of those who are not inhabitants of the State.

4. It is the purpose of the Commission to examine into the
breeding habits of the food fishes, and to endeavor to induce the
shad, and the salmon, to again return to our waters.

5. Your Commissioners are faithfully endeavoring to preserve
to the SJate an industry which has yielded many millions of
dollars in the past, and which, if intelligently administered, will
continue to be one of its richest possessions. The members of the
Commission are serving without salary, and they only ask for
sufficient funds to protect and advance the affairs of the fisheries
in accordance with the interests and economy of the State.

MBL WHOl LIBRARY

UH 17US T